Business Policy Essay

Please discuss, in detail, what is meant by a hierarchy of strategy According to our textbook, A hierarchy of strategy is a grouping of strategy types by level in the organization. Hierarchy of strategy is a nesting of one strategy within another so that they compliment and support one another (Wheelen Hunger, 2012, p. 20). A companys functional strategies are nested within its business strategies, which is in turn nested in the overall corporate strategy. Since Im in the Air Force, I like to compare this to the different functional levels of command tactical, operational, and strategic. Each is nested within each other and compliments/supports one another just like a hierarchy of strategy. Most members operate at the tactical level (functional) then move up to the operational level (business) as they get promoted through the ranks. Leaders operate at the strategic level (corporate) ensuring that the overall mission/direction of the organization is being accomplished according to pla n. Although a hierarchy of strategy is optimal for most companies, many companies feel that a functional organizational structure is not an efficient way to organize activities, so they have reengineered according to processes or strategic business units (SBUs). A SBU is a semi-autonomous unit that is usually responsible for its own budgeting, new product decisions, hiring decisions, and price setting. An SBU is treated as an internal profit centre by corporate headquarters (Strategy, 2014). QUESTION 2 Please discuss, in detail, what you think constitutes a good corporate strategy and why Our textbook states that, Corporate Strategy describes a companys overall direction in terms of its general attitude toward growth and the management of its various businesses and product lines. Corporate strategies typically fit within the three main categories of stability, growth, and retrenchment (Wheelen Hunger, 2012, p. 19). refers to the plan of action, a sense of direction, and a corporate strategy refers to the overall scope and sense of direction to the organization on the whole. It represents the way in which the various business operations work together in the quest to achieve the organizational objectives. A corporate strategy should be formula ted after taking into consideration the overall market and environmental analysis. Proper recognition of the mission, vision and objectives of the organization should be kept in mind before the formulation of the corporate strategy.

Abolish Columbus Day

Columbus Day has regarded Christopher Columbus as a hero for his â€Å"discovery† of America. In parts of America there are big Columbus Day celebrations and parades; even the schools are closed so the children may experience the festivities. The fact of the matter is that Columbus Day does not celebrate the actual â€Å"accomplishments† of Columbus, but celebrates the PG story of Columbus that school teachers would tell elementary school children in the form of a rhyme or song.The celebration of Columbus Day glorifies the colonial conquest, enslavement, and murder of indigenous people by Europeans and should be wiped off the books of American national holidays because Christopher Columbus is not a great Italian explorer who discovered America and Columbus’ exploration led the massive genocide of the indigenous people. All throughout America, Italian-American people celebrate Christopher Columbus as one of the great Italian heroes.In reality, Columbus was not eve n Italian but Genoese, which is a person born in Genoa. Italy did not become a country until 1861 which is 355 years after Columbus died. While Columbus was alive he did not go on his famous trip across the Atlantic Ocean sponsored by Genoa but instead sponsored by Spain. Christopher Columbus set out on his exploration to find a faster trade route to Asia and so traveled East thinking that would have been a faster way; obviously this is not true.In Howard Zinn’s essay, Columbus, The Indians, and Human Progress, the writer states that Columbus would have never made it to Asia and, â€Å"One-fourth of the way there he came upon an unknown, uncharted land†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Zinn). If Columbus was the great explorer that Columbus Day portrays him as, then he would have at least realized that the land he discovered was not Asia but instead America. When Columbus died, he thought that he went to Asia even though an acquaintance of his, Amerigo Vespucci, had already realized that the l and Columbus went to was not Asia but the New World.Besides the fact that Columbus was not even close to getting to Asia, he did not â€Å"discover† America, but instead he informed Europe of the existence of the landmass. The land was already inhabited by millions of Amerindian that had been living in America for thousands of years. The Order of the Sons of Italy in America argue in their article, Columbus: Fact or Fiction, that Columbus did discover America by saying, â€Å"Even if others visited the continent sporadically before he did, their voyages had no historical ignificance. † The OSIA meant that even if anyone visited the New Land before Columbus; since their discovery did not have any grand importance or documentation that the other explorer’s discoveries do not matter. Even though Columbus never took credit for discovering America because he thought he was in Asia the whole time, Americans of today blindly give him the grand title of the â€Å"disco verer of America† when he actually just brought the land into the minds of the people of Europe.When Columbus first arrived in the New World, there were more than eight million American Indian (Taino) living in the area where Columbus landed which was the Bahamas. Columbus did not see the Taino as a civilization of people but as stated in Zinn’s article Columbus wrote in his journal that, â€Å"†¦They would make fine servants†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (Columbus quoted in Zinn). With that Columbus began his subjugation of the Taino because he wanted gold that no one else was sure existed in the abundance that Columbus believed.The Admiral’s presence and interference with the Taino’s daily lives caused disputes and separation of the Taino tribes as well as the destruction their lands which helped lead to their downfall. Juliet Ucelli argued in her article, Italian-Americans: Say Basta to Columbus, about how she did not want the Italian people to be like Columbus in the way that he would, â€Å"†¦go into other people’s lands, take them over, and exploit labor and resources. † This exploitation leads Columbus to build mines in which he forced the Taino to arduous physical labor, which killed millions.If a native man did not bring in enough gold at the end of the month, Columbus would have the laborer’s hands cut off which caused massive blood loss and ultimately death. Mothers would drown their children because they had no way of feeding them and did not want their child to grow up in such conditions. In the essay â€Å"Thief, Slave Trader, Murderer: Christopher Columbus and Caribbean Population Decline† Mark Freeland and Tink Tinker, the authors, indicate that, â€Å"†¦Colon presided over the deaths of some seven and a half million people. † By the end of Columbus’ voyage he killed almost all of the indigenous people.By the time Columbus was carried away in chains, only 500,000 of the origina l 8 million Taino’s were left, and those were wiped out by the rest of the European explorers who were inspired by Columbus. A lot of Americans celebrate Columbus Day without ever knowing the true facts of what actually went on during his exploration. Nowadays more people have learned the truth about Christopher Columbus and started to protest the day dedicated to his wrongdoings. Columbus Day should be abolished and replaced because of the acts of genocide and the overall sense that Columbus was not a great explorer.Works Cited Freeland, Mark, and Tink Tinker. â€Å"Thief, slave trader, murderer: Christopher Columbus and Caribbean population decline. † Wicazo Sa Review 23. 1 (2008): 25+. General OneFile. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. Order of the Sons of in America, Columbus: Fact vs. Fiction. (2005): n. page. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. Ucelli, Juliet. â€Å"Italian-Americans: Say Basta to Columbus. † (2012): n. page. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. Zinn, Howard. â€Å"Columbus, The Indians, and Human Progress† People’s History of the United States. (2012): n. page. Web. 28 Oct. 2012.

God Is Black: Examine the Uses of Religious Imagery in the Fire Next Time.

‘God is black’ (The Fire Next Time). Examine the uses of religious imagery in The Fire Next Time. The Fire Next Time includes many religious images concerning race, ethnicity and culture. The first essay, My Dungeon Shook, is a letter from James Baldwin to his nephew, in an attempt to â€Å"strengthen [him] against the loveless world. † The second, Down at the Cross, explores the background experiences that shaped his view of the world, and allowed him to give the advice in the previous essay.Throughout Down at the Cross, Baldwin examines the â€Å"white God† of his Christian youth, and the â€Å"black God† preached by Elijah Mohammed and the Nation of Islam. Although Baldwin acknowledges both groups’ achievements, he is ultimately critical of their ideologies. Baldwin becomes disillusioned with his church; he feels the â€Å"slow crumbling of my faith, the pulverisation of my fortress† after practicing as a preacher for 3 years. Simila rly, he rejects the Nation of Islam’s ideology that God is solely for the black community, and that â€Å"the white man [†¦] is a devil. Baldwin uses religious imagery to advocate a policy of acceptance, of love between black and white. He argues that by making God colour-conscious, and by belonging exclusively to one race, each group is guilty of legitimising and strengthening the racial hatred and discrimination of the time. Baldwin makes it perfectly clear that he values the church. He describes his childhood, in which it saved him from the sordid drugs, prostitution and gambling on the street. He describes his time in the pulpit as â€Å"very exciting,† and confesses that nothing else in his life could â€Å"equal the power and the glory† that he felt while leading a congregation.The language he uses to describe the fervor, the experience, of his sermons is remarkably literary. His personal feelings are clearly being recalled here, as he allows himself to be swept up in the â€Å"fire and excitement that [would] sometimes, without warning, fill a church, causing it [†¦] to ‘rock. ’† This imagery is very visual, as Baldwin allows the reader into his personal view of the church. This strengthens his argument, as it gives it authenticity. However, this does not show the full picture. The Church and the street are linked by Baldwin later in the essay when he asks whether heaven is â€Å"merely another ghetto. This could be seen to be a reference to New York’s status as a ‘safe haven,’ away from the lynching and segregation in the Southern states, however in reality New York was crowded and dangerous. It could also be a reference to how the Church itself is not able to help the black population. It connects the Church and the street, and to some extent brings the dangers of the street into the church itself, something that is expanded upon later when Baldwin complains of the â€Å"ugly an d unctuous flirtatiousness† that he experienced in his Church. This sentence defines the Church, with how it promises much but delivers so little.Baldwin understands what he is arguing against, as he spent 3 years of his childhood totally immersed in its ideologies, and it is only now that he can pick apart its restrictions and failures. `It is these restrictions and failures that cause Baldwin to reject his faith. He comes to realise that â€Å"there was no love in the church. It was a mask for hatred and self-hatred and despair. † He starts to see that instead of practicing a message that God loves everybody, the Christian church protects and loves only those that believe the same thing as them. What he found most disturbing was that this love â€Å"did not apply to white people at all. This split between believers and non-believers did not fit with Baldwin’s theory of acceptance and integration, as he saw is as an example of hypocrisy at the heart of the chur ch. This imagery can be seen to mirror that of segregated America, except it is whites who are marginalised and discriminated against. It perpetuates the notion that black and white are different, and cannot co-operate together. Baldwin fears that it is these teachings – that the black community should not attempt to reconcile with the whites, but should exclude and dislike them – that is the first road block on the journey to racial equality.He believes that â€Å"we cannot be free until they are,† as it is black people who must learn to love those that do not show them love in return, before the white oppressors will come to realise, and therefore be free of, their crimes. Baldwin uses religious imagery to reveal the hypocritical behavior of his fellow preachers. He says that he â€Å"knew where the money for ‘The Lord’s work’ went,† indicating not only that he realised that church money was being stolen and spent by preachers on the mselves, but also the use of inverted commas reveals that Baldwin is rejecting that Church work really helps people at all.It gives it an element of sarcasm, by subverting the framework that he used to preach and turning it into a comment on the failure of the Church’s ability to help, Baldwin shows the depth of his disillusionment. Baldwin’s time in the church also helped him come to realise that racism exists even at the heart of Christianity. He states: â€Å"I realised the Bible had been written by white men. I knew that, according to many Christians, I was a descendant of Ham, who had been cursed, and I was therefore predestined to be a slave. [†¦] My fate had been sealed for ever. †¦] It seemed, when one looked out over Christendom, that this was what Christendom effectively believed. † Baldwin uses Christian imagery in order to highlight its flaws. He reveals an institution that offered nothing more than a vengeful God, who did nothing to help b uild constructive relations between black and white people. The refusal to accept white and black together reveals an institution that is bound by parochialism. As B. Pakrasi has said before, â€Å"Baldwin sees the seeds of hatred and acrimony embedded in the dogma of Christianity perpetuating the belief of a white God. †Another facet of religious imagery that Baldwin critiques is the notion that there is a ‘black God. ’ This is part of the ideology of the Nation of Islam, a group led by Elijah Mohammed, but also closely associated with the radical activist Malcolm X. Baldwin expressly praises the Nation of Islam, as he believes they have succeeded where Christianity failed. Mohammed was able to â€Å"heal and redeem drunkards and junkies, to convert people who have come out of prison and keep them out, to make men chaste and women virtuous,† however Baldwin disagrees with one crucial aspect. The Nation of Islam allows for no integration between black and white.Mohammed sees the white population as â€Å"devils,† and links them to being sinners. Baldwin contends this, as he argues that if one is to adopt the theory that all white people are sinners, they open themselves to the â€Å"gates of paranoia,† as they become incapable of distinguishing between an actual threat and an imagined one. In a society that was so hostile towards blacks, Baldwin admits that this is an extremely hard trap to avoid, but he maintains it is necessary to try, because otherwise they will see all whites as an enemy, and will never integrate and build better relationships.Baldwin makes it clear to Mohammed that he has no intention of overthrowing the white population. He says to the table that given the choice between dying with his white and black friends, and living but at their expense, he would choose death. He thinks to himself â€Å"I love a few people and they love me, and some of them are white, and isn’t love more important tha n colour? † Again, Baldwin is using the religious imagery of the devil, the sinners and above all the black God to highlight the weaknesses and hypocrisies in the Nation of Islam’s ideologies.He is pushing forward his own courses of conduct; love and integration with both white and black. He sees no reason why there should not be a black God, but he believes that when a group attaches Him solely to their race, it becomes something else. It gives that God a new meaning, as it encourages His followers to hate the opposing race. He finds this on both sides, both with Christianity and Islam, and is ultimately unable to accept either doctrine. Baldwin sees a mirror image in the Nation of Islam’s treatment of white people, and their treatment of blacks. Harvey G.Simmons sees this, saying that Baldwin rejected the Nation of Islam because â€Å"its methods are infused with the same fanaticism and hatred that the Negro faces in white society. † James Baldwin uses r eligious imagery in The Fire Next Time in order to critique both the Christian church, and the Nation of Islam. He finds them both lacking, as he comes to the conclusion that neither advocates a policy that allows for an increase in co-operation between black and white people. Instead, they are insular, only caring for themselves and are unwilling to truly share the love of God with everyone, black or white.This is what Baldwin wants. He articulates his message in his letter to his nephew, saying that â€Å"you must accept them and accept them with love. For these innocent people have no other hope. They are, in effect, still trapped in a history which they do not understand; and until they understand it, they cannot be released from it. † He is using these essays to attempt to speak to the American public, to urge them to take a stand and speak out against the discrimination. Throughout My Dungeon Shook James uses the personal form of â€Å"I,† giving his letter perso nal emotional ties.It also makes his message more human, and helps establish empathy before his appeal in Down at the Cross. Down at the Cross uses terms such as ‘we Americans’ repeatedly, which shows that Baldwin is attempting to unite everyone, both black and white. For him, religion is short sighted and controlling, it doesn’t follow through with its promise that God loves everybody, because as Baldwin points out; â€Å"If His love was so great, and if He loved all his children, then were we, the blacks, cast down so far? Word Count – 1811 Baldwin, James, The Fire Next Time(London: Penguin, 1964) Bloom, Harold, James Baldwin (New York: Infobase Publishing, 2007) Hardy, Clarence E. , James Baldwin's God: Sex, Hope, and Crisis in Black Holiness Culture (Tennessee: University of Tennessee Press, (2003) Pakrasi, B. , ‘Review: The Fire Next Time by James Baldwin,’ The Journal of Negro History, 50. 1 (1965) ;http://www. jstor. org/stable/2716413 ? amp;Search=yes;searchText=baldwin;searchText=%22the+fire+next+time%22;list=hide;searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3D%2522the%2Bfire%2Bnext%2Btime%2522%2Bbaldwin%26acc%3Don%26wc%3Don;prevSearch=;item=1;ttl=312;returnArticleService=showFullText; [accessed 20th November 2011] Simmons, Harvey P. , ‘James Baldwin and the Negro Conundrum,’ The Antioch Review, 23, 2 (1963) ;http://www. jstor. org/stable/4610523? seq=3;Search=yes;searchText=baldwin;searchText=%22the+fire+next+time%22;list=hide;searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3D%2522the%2Bfire%2Bnex %2Btime%2522%2Bbaldwin%26gw%3Djtx%26acc%3Don%26prq%3D%2522the%2Bfire%2Bnext%2Btime%2522%26Search%3DSearch%26hp%3D25%26wc%3Don;prevSearch=;item=2;ttl=312;returnArticleService=showFullText;resultsServiceName=null; [accessed 20th November 2011] ——————————————– [ 1 ]. James Baldwin, The Fire Next Time (London: Penguin, 1964) [ 2 ]. Baldwin, p. 15 [ 3 ]. Baldwin, p. 62 [ 4 ]. Baldwin, p. 62 [ 5 ]. Baldwin, p 37 [ 6 ]. Baldwin, p. 60 [ 7 ]. B. Pakrasi, ‘Review: The Fire Next Time by James Baldwin,’ The Journal of Negro History, 50. (1965) p. 61 [ 8 ]. Baldwin, p. 35 [ 9 ]. Baldwin, p. 37 [ 10 ]. Baldwin, p. 36 [ 11 ]. Baldwin [ 12 ]. Baldwin, p. 58 [ 13 ]. Baldwin, p. 40 [ 14 ]. Baldwin, p. 41 [ 15 ]. Baldwin, p. 18 [ 16 ]. Baldwin, p. 39 [ 17 ]. Baldwin, p. 38 [ 18 ]. Pakrasi, p. 60-61 [ 19 ]. Baldwin, p. 64-65 [ 20 ]. Baldwin, p. 60 [ 21 ]. Baldwin, p. 61 [ 22 ]. Baldwin, p. 64 [ 23 ]. Harvey G. Simmons, ‘James Baldwin and the Negro Conundrum,’ The Antioch Review, 23, 2 (1963) p. 252 [ 24 ]. Baldwin, p. 16-17 [ 25 ]. Baldwin

Short paper Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Short paper - Assignment Example jugation of indigent and stigmatized women is connected to gender and class correlations, that of Third World women is connected in addition to race interrelations and frequently imperialism (Ramusack 30-35). During the 19th century, as millions of Britons left for the New Worlds, grate and home were actually shifted from the centre of the empire to its very periphery. In the film Out of Africa, it explores how such demographic changes affected the means in which the British citizens both promoted and destabilized the idea of the domestic woman (Antoinette 60-97). Though the ideal of the domestic woman was surely affected by these mass shifts, in the film the explanation of her becomes constricted and unfeasible, for she must not only be a goddess, but she must in addition be English hero is ordained for a happy ending, she either get married to an English angel-wife who must be brought with him to the New World. This patter appears to support the allegedly corresponding ideologies of domesticity and imperialism. London, according to imperialist doctrine, was the virtuous epicenter of a domineering empire whose mission was to civilize the rest of the world. In the film, Karen Blixen is the angel who offers the ethical foundation of a consecrated to such scheme than English soil. Nevertheless the films reveal much ambivalence towards this domestic idyllic. She is often seen as the colonial and indigenous woman; they are also seen as foils for the English angels since there were much more interesting and gorgeous. But the domestic and imperiali st principles themselves discarded. Coming to Kenya, Karen Blixen shows that female expatriates were dreadfully required in the colonies; consequently, a woman’s responsibility was to leave England. Better still her womanly responsibility told her to stay a pure goddess beside an English hearthside. The domestic dogma, then since of its firm alliance with nationalism, appears to have been more in dispute with

Theater Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

Theater - Essay Example between her and her sister Becca because her sister thinks it is not fair for Izzy to have a child and she does not, ever since her son Danny died from a motor accident. Izzy has been portrayed in the play as a moody person as evidenced in Act 1 Scene 1 where she is telling Becca how she punched another woman in a bar (Rabbit hole,p.10). Izzy is also portrayed as a very irresponsible person where she bends the rules and gets pregnant from her relationship with a musician named Auggie. The family is a middle class unit and worse of all; Izzy is no longer working at her usual place. Becca has a steady relationship with her man Howie but she is affected by grief ever since their son Danny died. Howie has a rigid time controlling and understanding her spouse and this brings lots of tension in the family. Izzy is also in a relationship with Auggie the musician, though not from a wedding setting, and this intensifies tensions in the family unit. I like the fact that Howie is a loving and caring person, but I dislike Becca’s attitude towards him. I also like that Izzy is in search of happiness from her musician boyfriend but I dislike the fact that she got pregnant too fast without getting to know her boyfriend and his previous relationships better. Izzy’s overall goal in the play is to show that she is an agent of change in the family setup where people like Becca should not live a life of regrets and grief. Izzy’s objective in Act 1 Scene 1 is to show herself a strong woman who can not be intimidated anyhowly by anyone she cant recognize. She also portrays herself as a woman who will bend the existing notions and perceptions that seem to hinder her path to happiness as evidenced by her relationship to Auggey, the musician. Izzy would wear trendy clubbing attire in the set to portray her fun-loving nature as evidenced in her act coming from the bar where she picked a fight. She is a woman who has never grown up despite her twenty-something years of existence in

THE GOVERNING OF THE EMPLOYMENT STATUS BY ORTHODOX LAW PRINCIPLES Essay

THE GOVERNING OF THE EMPLOYMENT STATUS BY ORTHODOX LAW PRINCIPLES - Essay Example The importance of sham self-employment is to disguise a person that he or she is self-employed while in essence they are actually not. This could be the case for a number of reasons which could be known to the employee and the company or the employee could be uncharacteristically oblivious of the on goings. The employers could at times stand to gain and so would the employees from time to time. Plans are underway to engage workers as independent contractors wherever the parties intend to create working relationships with adaptations that do not reflect their genuine intentions. It is common knowledge that disguising the employment status is possible through various ways. This could also happen under written contracts to both the employee and the employer as well as when an employee is hired on an informal basis to offer labour and is at times told that they are a contractor just like any other. Some businesses often do not register their workers as employees since it is a benefit to the business and the employees because they are treated as self-employed in regard to insurance remittals and income tax. This is a tricky situation in which the employees would find themselves in since there is no basis for protection of rights. Most of the companies will be of the view that their employees are not contracted for employment but rather for provision of services and consultancy. These, quite simply put, define sham contracts. Such contracts are mostly entered into by immigrant workers who are in desperate need for jobs and also lack the necessary immigration papers. Thus it is easier for them to try and avoid the authorities. Diplock LJ in Snook v London and West Riding Investments Ltd (1967) gives adequate consideration of what would be considered a ‘sham’. In his judgment, he said: "As regards the contention of the plaintiff that the transactions between himself, A uto Finance and the defendants were a ‘sham’, it is, I think, necessary to consider what, if any, legal concept is involved in the use of this popular and pejorative word. I apprehend that, if it has any meaning in law, it means acts done or documents executed by the parties to the ‘sham’ which are intended by them to give to third parties or to the court the appearance of creating between the parties legal rights and obligations different from the actual legal rights and obligations (if any) which the parties intend to create. The one thing, I think, is clear in legal principle, morality and the authorities (see Yorkshire Railway Wagon Co v Maclure and Stoneleigh Finance Ltd v Phillips), is that for acts or documents to be a ‘sham’, with whatever legal consequences follow from this, all the parties thereto must have a common intention that the acts or documents are not to create the legal rights and obligations which they give the appearance o f creating. No unexpressed intentions of a ‘

Aircraft Electrical and Mechanical Systems Case Study

Aircraft Electrical and Mechanical Systems - Case Study Example This is why the name static to distinguish it from other concepts such as dynamic and absolute pressure. Atmospheric pressure reduces height and vice versa. The main explanation for this phenomenon is that Air has weight, and it is this weight exerted on a unit area of a surface that is known as pressure. The atmospheric pressure can be defined as the total force or weight by an air column at a point or area. Moving up means the air column is reducing resulting in less weight due to less air. Therefore, the pressure becomes less, which explains why atmospheric pressure reduces with height. Air presses on us more when at sea level that when on a mountaintop. This because at sea level the air pressure is approximately 14.7 lbs. /in2 and this value reduce as one goes up. Pressure varies significantly as one moves from the earth’s surface upwards to the top of the atmosphere. At higher altitudes, there is less air resulting in less weight and consequently less pressure. Therefore, mathematically the density and pressure of air reduce with elevation. Airspeed refers to the speed of an aircraft comparative to the air. Airspeed is measured ordinarily on board an aircraft using an airspeed indicator that is connected to a pitot-static system. The relationship between pressure and airspeed is that the function of calibrated airspeed is part of the compressible impact pressure. It is also important to note that, at sea level pressure, the rate of equivalent airspeed is equal to calibrated airspeed. 1. Description of types of basic pitot/static probes found on most 1st and 2nd generation aircraft 1st and 2nd generation aircrafts relied on non-compensating pitot tubes. These tubes were also associated with errors in static pressure measurements. Modern aerodynamic pitot tubes have an ogival shape (Clancy, 1975, p. 97). The shape is because of the formation of a quadratic polynomial profile.

Pedagogics as a System Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Pedagogics as a System - Essay Example The teachers play an important role in achieving the desired knowledge as the teacher acts as the moderator and motivator so that the learners would be challenged to explore beyond what is expected. If I have my own personal website and I will be permitted to use it as an instructional module to teach my students, I will utilize it to ensure that a free flow of idea is achieved. The website instruction will not have the limitations of time unlike in the classroom. It should be noted that discussions made in the classroom are cut short thus the discourse is likewise abruptly concluded which impedes the free flow of ideas. The internet and this website will not pose such restrictions but rather everybody can contribute or give his own thoughts and ideas for academic discussion in his own time and pace. The website can also be a means to give essay homework, and be used as the mode of submission for the students. The website can equally be used to provide additional links to websites that will contribute to the discussion if not materials that can be used to provide alternative knowledge distinct from the ones provided by the school. With each student given a unique login ID and password combination to establish their identity, their grades can also be viewed conveniently and privately as well as their class standing. The website can also be a means to provide historical views of the discussion made by past classes on the same subject in order not to repeat the same point of view. There would also be instances where the position of current students can be stressed or supported by the discussions of the students in past classes. In this way, a more mature and intelligent discussion can be achieved since old arguments which have already been presented in the past will be limited thus the mind shall be challenged to offer new ideas and concepts for discourse.

The use of Non-Invasive Blood Pressure measurement devices to Essay

The use of Non-Invasive Blood Pressure measurement devices to accurately measure irregular heart rhythms - Essay Example The impulse for evidence-based practice is fuelled by pressures from the tax payer and the healthcare facilities who strive for lesser costs, improved access to information and better understanding of treatment and care options among the clients. Rycroft-Malone et al. (2004) defined evidence-based practice as the provision of clinical practice with the aid of the best possible evidence available. Evidence-based practice promotes change in the education/learning of nursing students that encourages them to indulge more on research that is relevant to the practice and encourages a collaborative partnership with clinicians. According to Dougherty and Lister (2011), it is vital to have a wide knowledge about the different forms of evidence that relate to the daily encounters of nurses in clinical practice. The aim of the study is to investigate evidence of the difference in the accuracy of using automated and manual blood pressure measurement device on patients with irregular heartbeats in a bid to determine the better method of obtaining the readings. A literature search was accomplished using electronic databases such as Science Direct and by hand searching. Key words included in the search included: Blood Pressure, measurements, accuracy and BP measurement devices. Undesired articles were filtered by limiting the search to articles published after the year 2000 to date to ensure that they were recent. The search was further limited to adult patients since the study involved only the adult patients. The search included both male and female patients since the study was not influenced by the sex of the patient as key terms. After a systematic research, a number of relevant literatures was obtained. 6 articles from the search were found to be relevant.

What roles do interest groups play in influencing public opinion and Essay

What roles do interest groups play in influencing public opinion and the political process What kinds of interest groups are they How do they contribute to, or hinder a healthy democracy - Essay Example It is important to note that in political science, the main points of argument refer to the particular study of what individuals get, the time they are to get it and the process to be followed in getting it. This has led to many questions about how the government carries out its governance process. For instance, why does it have different tax regimes for different people and firms? Why some benefits are made available to certain groups of people and not others among others. Most of the answers to these questions in the American example depend on the political and socioeconomic processes and the work of interest groups The works of interest groups cannot be underestimated in any country; in the United States, these groups are important channels through which people express their ideas and make their views known to people they elected in governance. Citizens can always channel their views and concerns to interest groups that articulate their concerns to various arms of the government and other public institutions (Maisel 25). In the United States, interest groups find fertile grounds to advance their interests through the informal traditions and the formal structures existing in the country (Hays para 5). It is important to note that these groups find their great source of influence from the fact that political parties in the US are thought to have some weaknesses as far as tackling the interests of people in the country is concerned. Another important feature of the American political system that encourages the functioning of interest groups relates to the way political power is decentralized to various localities and states. This is known as federalism, and plays a big role in the way citizen associations begin; mostly at the local level and the state and later coming together to make strong influential groups at the national level Interest groups made up of business people and corporate groups agree that they are critical to

Marketing management exam Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Marketing management exam - Essay Example However, summed with faulty anticipation of the market trends and too much investment in a particular project to support its aggressive marketing strategies, Tesco also had to face significant challenges in securing the desired return on its investment along with affecting its market reputation to a considerable extent. Illustratively, it was because of the same reason that the launching of Tesco’s fresh and easy store failed in the US market recently. Marketing Plan for the First Year: One of the major problems that Tesco is facing is maintaining accuracy in anticipating the changing needs and wants of the customers. Therefore, in the first year, Tesco should build such product management strategies that could identify the tastes and preferences of the potential customers. Besides ensuring the quality while offering the products to its potential customers, Tesco shall also try to renovate the older products according to the tastes and preferences of the customers to augment t heir demand. Similarly, as a market leader and to make a stronger appeal to its customers, Tesco should note that in the modern world the customers are becoming increasingly quality driven. Therefore, Tesco should reassess its marketing processes concerning certain products in order to attract the customers’ loyalty at a greater degree. To be specific, Tesco should also be concerned regarding its product quality rather than entirely focusing on pricing at a cheaper rate than its competitors. Tesco must also pay due attention on enhancing its customer relationship model to sustain its competitive advantages at stake owing to the rising competition and the various ethical issues surrounding its regular functioning. Accordingly, to maintain transparency and enrich its customer recognition, the company should emphasise taking regular feedbacks from its various stakeholders including customers, employees, suppliers and shareholders. As expected, the feedbacks shall assist Tesco to balance its shareholder-centric objectives and its sustainability goals in a more competent manner and overcome the currently observed challenges. Marketing Plan for the Second Year: In the following year, Tesco should deliver due emphasis on storing and interpreting the feedbacks obtained from the stakeholders. This will certainly assist the company not only to develop a more objective oriented business functioning to reward a better market stance but will also enrich its product/service marketing strategies, contributing to a more competitive advantage to the company. It will be noteworthy for the company to ensure that the feedbacks obtained from the customers and other group of stakeholders are not misinterpreted, which will further assure accuracy in its market anticipation. Likewise, the company can develop different strategies to suffice the market trends and demands in different places. It is very much essential in this context that Tesco aims at taking a competitive advant age of its brand name and keep focusing on its transparency obligations as well as better customer focus in its marketing operations. Besides, in the second year of application of this marketing plan, the company needs to take an assessment of the strategic application effectiveness. Accordingly, Tesco must also shift from its

The mayor of Casterbridge Essay Example for Free

The mayor of Casterbridge Essay Analyse the first two chapters of The Mayor of Casterbridge and discuss how far they act as a prologue to the rest of the novel In The Mayor of Casterbridge the opening two chapters are a good indicator of Hardys style and act as a prologue to the rest of the novel. Hardys style places considerable focus on imagery and the scene around the characters. He used the writing techniques at this scene setting to help you understand the context in which the characters act. During the first chapter, Hardy describes Henchard as a fine figure, swarthy, and stern in aspect however he is not named at first. It symbolises that this could be any man, or could relate to the reader in someway and makes the reader look at this character from a different angle as if we might know him rather then seeing him as Henchard. Susan Henchard, Henchards wife, is described to be so faint as to be almost invisible; she becomes a less important part as the plot thickens. Another character mentioned is Elizabeth-Jane the first. The reader is given very few descriptions towards her because she is only a small child. We call her the first because beyond chapter 2 the reader is told that this Elizabeth-Jane died 3 months after the auction and the second child of Susan Henchard is called Elizabeth-Jane but is the sailors daughter not Henchards. Elizabeth the second is much like a father in a way but at her meeting with Henchard, she gives him her name and Henchard believes her to be his daughter. In the second chapter the reader only knows Elizabeth as Susans grown up daughter not Elizabeth-Jane. The reader is given other characters, the furmity lady who offered Henchard the rum that got him drunk leading to the auction, the country people who were in the tent who egged on and teased Henchard to sell his wife and Newton, Susan Henchards second husband, who bought Susan. They represent the country people of the time. Hardy draws the readers imagination away from the business of the cities and into the openness of the countryside. This gives the effect of a close village, that everyone knows everyone elses name, age and business round the community and that a large event like an auction of a wife would be unforgettable. They are used to the quiet and simple way of life rather than the complex ways of the cities. Hardy illustrates the characters act in their setting by using lots of imagery. He uses natures harmony to show humans disharmony. The description of the characters and their surroundings is excellently detailed, with use of a broad vocabulary. He uses description effectively. He draws the readers attention to the characters by using strong imagery, showing natures harmony, to represent the tension and strain on the marriage of the Henchards, humans disharmony. The characters are similarly of their time period with their language, they use dialectal English as well as their regional accents. Henchard was very open about his marriage life while he was in his drunken state. He seemed to feel that marriage is the biggest mistake a man can make and that it is for fools. When the couple met the turnip-hoer, Henchard asked about work needed in the village. This is evidence to show, due to the industrial revolution, work in the country was short, and with all these new machines around, many homes were taken down. Although Henchard doesnt approve of all these new ways of life, he eventually will use them showing that he realises people must change. Another theme present is the concept of is fate. If the auctioneer had not got involved and shouted what was up for auction, the sailor may not have bought her, had the furmity lady not had the rum, Henchard would never have got the idea to sell Susan. Hardy changes Henchard from a poor, unknown man to a respected and powerful member to the society. The auction had turned him in to a new man because it forced him to reconsider his life. Hardy uses third person narration for this story. He obviously likes to be the narrator of the story rather than be involved. He encourages readers to carry on reading by only giving us certain information about hes characters for example he says a young man and woman but he does not give us their names. His language gives a great contribution to the opening of the novel. He uses varied sentences structure to keep the writing interesting. He continues this with a great variety of vocabulary making use of his education. The opening chapters are probably the most important parts of the story. By the terrible action of the wife sale, Henchard goes on to make himself a better man by vowing never to touch another drink the years he had lived. As he grows older, he has achieved himself a high position in life and his community. Susan did not change; she was still the same person, quiet, faint still she was almost invisible. This makes it her most crucial part to the novel. The time lapse seems interesting, as the setting changes but not the personality of the characters, excluding Henchard. This is where we met Elizabeth-Jane as a young adult but not Henchards daughter but the sailors, Newton. This novel and its opening chapters are a typical Hardy style. From looking closely at Chapters 1 and 2, it is clear that this is an unusual way to start a book but yet it is interesting. It encourages you to read on and find out more about the man the woman and the latter they carried with them as they walked into Weydon-Priars.

Competition in Public Health

Competition in Public Health Introduction Public health was established by the Romans as they thought that sanitation would lead to good health.The Romans made associations between causes of ailment and methods of deterrence. as a consequence they developed a large structure of Public Health works around their empire.The Romans thought that Prevention of illness was more imperative than cure of disease. Roman Philosophy was based along the lines of probing for a motive then establishing a preventative measure to reduce the risk involved. As a practical people they used remarks of the environment to determine what was causing ill health. This form of experimental observation led the Romans to understand that death rates were higher in and around marshes and swamps.The remedy would then be based upon judgment. The Romans, being technologically suitable, resolved to offer clean water through aqueducts, to eliminate the bulk of sewage through the building of sewers and to cultivate a system of public toilets throughout their tow ns and citys. Personal hygiene was reinvigorated through the building of large public baths.(priory.comhistoryofmedicine/publichealth) In some ways, public health is a recent concept, although it has roots in ancient times. From the beginnings of human evolution, it was recognized that unclean water and lack of suitable waste disposal spread vector-borne diseases. Early religions attempted to controlbehaviour that precisely related to health, from types of food eaten, to regulating certain indulgent behaviours, such as drinking alcohol or sexual relations. The creation of governments placed accountability on leaders to cultivate public health policies and agendas in order to gain some indulgent of the causes of disease and thus safeguard social stability opulence, and maintain order.(priory.comhistoryofmedicine/publichealth). In America, public health worker Dr. Sara Josephine Baker dropped the infant mortality rate using preventative means. She established many agendas to help the poor in New York City keep their infants hale and hearty. Dr. Baker led teams of nurses into the crowded communities of Hells Kitchen and taught mothers how to dress, feed, and wash their babies. After WWI many states and countries followed her example in order to lower infant mortality rates.During the 20th century, the intense increase in average life span is widely credited to public health achievements, such as vaccination programs and control of infectious diseases, effective safety policies such as motor-vehicle and occupational safety, improved family planning, fluoridation of drinking water, anti-smoking measures, and programs designed to decrease chronic disease.( American Journal OF Public Health, 2005). What does the meaning of public health? If community nurses are to be involved in public health work some understanding of its meaning is required. Perhaps the key term is the organised efforts of society, implying some collective responsibility for health and prevention (Beaglehole Bonita, 1997). This can mean the partnerships and combinedtactics the government is so keen on to stimulate health, like the health action zones or health living centres. Nurses involved in public wellbeing work need to focus on the health of local communities, groups and populations, not on individuals or families. When trying to identify the health needs of local communities, approaches using both art and science come in. Beaglehole and Bonitas (1997) suggest both a qualitative (art) and quantitative (science) approach can be taken in identifying health needs. The foundation stone of the quantitative approach to public Competetion: Most of the day-to-day business of the organization, and around three quarters of the funding, is administered by district health boards (DHBs). DHBs plan, accomplish, provide and purchase health services for the population of their district to ensure services are arranged excellently and proficiently for all of New Zealand. This includes funding for primary care, hospital services, public health services, aged care services, and services provided by other non-government health providers including MÄ ori and Pacific providers. Health targetsare reviewed annually to ensure they align with health priorities. The current targets are listed below. *Shorter stays in emergency departments 95 percentof patients will be admitted, discharged, or transferred from an emergency department within six hours. *Improved access to elective surgery The volume of elective surgery will be increased by at least 4000 discharges per year. *Shorter waits for cancer treatment All patients, ready-for-treatment, wait less than four weeks for radiotherapy or chemotherapy. *Increased immunisation 90 percentof eight months olds will have their primary course of immunisation (six weeks, three months and five months immunisation events) on time by July 2014 and 95 percent by December 2014. *Better help for smokers to quit 95 percentof hospitalised patients who smoke and are seen by a health practitioner in public hospitals and 90 percentof enrolled patients who smoke and are seen by a health practitioner in general practice are offered brief advice and support to quit smoking. Within the target a specialised identified group will include progress towards 90 percentof pregnant women (who identify as smokers at the time of confirmation of pregnancy in general practice or booking with Lead Maternity Carer) are offered advice and support to quit. *More heart and diabetes checks 90 percentof the eligible population will have had their cardiovascular risk assessed in the last five years. (health.govt.nz) New Zealand permanent residents New Zealand citizens (including those from the Cook Islands, Niue or Tokelau) Australian citizen or permanent resident who has lived, or intends to live, in New Zealand for two years or more Work visa holder eligible to be in New Zealand for two years or more People aged 17 years or younger, in the care and control of an eligible parent, legal guardian, adopting parent or person applying to be their legal guardian Interim visa holders New Zealand Aid Programme student receiving Official Development Assistance (ODA) funding Commonwealth scholarship students Foreign language teaching assistant Refugees and protected persons, applicants and appeallants for refugee and protection status, and victims of people trafficking offences If you are living in the Netherlands or you are paying income-tax in the Netherlands you are required to procure a health insurance at a Dutch insurance company. In the past there was a difference between public and private healthcare in the Netherlands. This however has been changed and everybody is now required to purchase basic health insurance. The basic packageThe government has put together a basic package that covers about the same as the previous system. Health insurance companies are legally obliged to offer at least this basic package and can not reject anybody who is applying for it. With the basic package you are covered for the following:Medical care, including services by GP’s, hospitals, medical specialists and obstetricians Hospital stay, Dental care (up until the age of 18 years, when 18 years or older you are only covered for specialist dental care and false teeth), Various medical appliancesVarious medicines, Prenatal care,Patient transport (e.g. ambulance), Paramedical careYou can decide to purchase additional insurance for circumstances not included in the basic package. However, in this case insurance companies can reject your application and they have the right to   determine the price. If you are working for a company in the Netherlands, consider purchasing a collective health insurance policy, this can be a good option as it is often cheaper. However, you are not obliged to buy such a policy when it is offered to you and your employer is not obliged to make you an offer. Ask your employer about the possibilities.Fees of the basic packageThe fees for the basic health insurance package are annually determined by the health insurance companies and are normally approximately â‚ ¬95 per month. Although the Ministry of Health (Ministerie van Volksgezondheid, Welzijn en Sport)determines a standard premium, the insurance companies determine the additions fee you will have to pay in the end by charging a certain rate and Foreigners are also entitled to this grant if they qualify.Children under the age of 18 years do not have to pay any health insurance and are insured for free for the basic package of health care.(justlanded.com) References: Retrieved from health.govt.nz Retrieved from justlanded.com

Economic Trade Blocs

Economic Trade Blocs There has been a considerable development in regional economic integration schemes designed to achieve various economic, social and political purposes. Most countries in the world are members of one or more trade blocs known as regional integration agreement/arrangement (RIA). There has been a worldwide trend towards forming new regional arrangements and strengthening the existing ones. Inspired by the European Economic Country (EEC), now more popularly known as the European Union (EU) several regional integration schemes have been formed by the developing countries, particularly in Latin America and Africa. One more regional integration, that comes close to the EU in its boldness or its potential implications for the world economy is NAFTA (Cherunilam, 2005). Barriers to Trade in Selected European Union NAFTA A trade barrier is a common term that explains any regime policy or instruction that confines international trade. It can take many shapes, including: import duties, import licenses, export licenses, import allowance, taxes, subsidies, non-tariff barriers to trade, local substance necessities. Most of the trade barriers work on the similar principle i.e. the obligation of some kind of cost on trade that lifts the price of the traded products. Other trade barriers comprise of differences in culture, traditions, society, laws, language and exchange. Following are the trade barriers for identified trading blocs like European Union NAFTA: Customs duties among member states. Obstacles to the free course of import and/or export of goods and services among the member nations. Industrial/commercial policies concerning different countries. Barriers on movement of capital and people within the block. Common farming policies, transfer policies, scientific standards, fitness and wellbeing rule. Boundary control between different countries. Different internal taxation systems. Legal structures for business. Controls on movement of capital between the member countries. Protectionist community procurement policies. Advantages Disadvantages of being a Member Advantages: Friendship, cooperation among member countries strengthens. General state of member countries increases. It gives freedom to travel between member countries by simplifying visa regulations. A single economic space is created for member countries where they use common currency. Safety improves for member country. Trade relations strengthen, commodity circulation grows and trade improves in general for the member country. Disadvantages: National traditions and distinctive traits are lost by the member countries. Deflationary propensity increases between the member countries. Loss of power by the member country. Over estimation of trade benefits (Advantages and Disadvantages, 2008). Membership Conditions for European Union If a country wants to join the EU, it must value the doctrine and ideals upon which the EU is established. According to the treaties, contender countries must value the principles set out in agreements of European Union earlier than they can join the EU. Agreements affirm that The Union is based on the ideology of liberation, democratic system, respect for human rights ideologies which are ordinary to the Member States. Following are some principles which are required to be achieved by the country which wants to become a member of the EU: Political Principle: Country should be stable in providing definite democracy, the decree of law, human rights and admiration for and safety of minorities. Financial Principle: The survival of a running market economy as well as the ability to deal with aggressive force and market forces inside the Union is necessary for the member country. Institutional Principle: The country should have the capability to take on the compulsions of association, which contain the goals of political, economic and economic union (Conditions of Membership, 2005). Conditions for Membership Achieving membership in NAFTA is not an easy task. Membership to NAFTA would require discussions for membership in the World Trade Organization (WTO) which takes a great deal of time because many countries are standing in line for this membership. Member country needs to negotiate different deals with dozens of WTO member countries and G-7 countries (Entering NAFTA: the twists and turns of negotiations, 1995). Impact on the Bilateral or Multilateral Relations By joining the European Union and other trading blocs like NAFTA, United States will become the member of these Unions. These membership conditions for the selected regional trading blocs will help in determining the positive and negative impact on the bilateral or multilateral relations with the United States. These impacts are given as under: Positive Impacts: U.S will attain significant achievements in economic reform. EU and NAFTA will present a large and open market for the U.S. Member States of the trading blocs will be able to socialize freely all over the twenty-five countries. US exporters will enjoy lower tariff rates in their deal among the new Member states. The present system in which US exporters are confronted with a range of import rules will depart. US industry, investors and exporters will be benefited from these trade blocs in their deals with others (Bilateral agreements and fair trade practices, 2007). Negative Impacts: The bilateral investment agreements accomplished among new Member States and the US will require proper alteration in order to make certain that US investors enjoy similar investment surroundings. Existing import quotas maintained by the EU and NAFTA will require modifications to take in consideration trade flows between the new Member States and other countries. The present EU tariffs levels will also be applicable to new Member States like the U.S (Burghardt, 2004). Cost of Compliance and Non-Compliance In the EU Treaty, the basic underlying principle is the loyalty of the Member States to the community through quick compliance with its systems. This guideline states that Member States can take measures to ensure completion of the obligations arising out of this treaty. The countries can also assist in the fulfillment of the community tasks. Further, they shall desist from any actions which could put in danger the accomplishment of the objectives of this agreement. Broadly, this issue of compliance has many features: Legal, Political, Institutional, Economic. There can be a possibility that member states may fail to act in accordance with this agreement. The reason can be unwillingness and unawareness of the compulsions. The compliance costs are higher comparatively in those countries which have at least one subsidiary than with those which have no subsidiaries. The increase in the compliance costs can be seen when there is an increase in the member of subsidiaries in foreign country. For large corporations, total weighted cost of compliance is approximately 1.460.000 and for medium size companies it is 203.000. Impact of Trade Transactions There are potential gains for member non member countries and trade blocs from economic integration which are as follows: Trade Creation: Whenever trade barriers between countries are removed, industries in respective countries will concentrate on the most efficient use of resources and produce those goods that they are most efficient at producing. All participants will gain from this kind of trade practice. Trade Diversion: It occurs when trade is diverted from countries outside the trading area to the countries located inside it. Prices and Competition: The removal of trade barriers has both consumption and production effects for member and non member countries. Economies of Scale: Many industries, such as steel and automobiles, require large-scale production in order to obtain economies of scale in manufacturing. Formation of trading blocks enlarges the market so that the large scale production is justified. Dynamic Effects: The dynamic effect of integration is that it brings about a more efficient allocation of resources throughout the different trading blocks promoting the growth of some businesses and the decline of others, the development of new technology and products and the elimination of old processes. Restructuring: This process is creating a large scale restructuring of industries and firms, with the relocation of industry and many cross border mergers alliances. All the impacts of trade transactions show that this will be helpful for the expansion of project. These trading blocs will have a positive impact on expansion as these agreements will offer measures for protection. Under these measures, any product which is the subject of preferential treatment is imported into the territory of a contracting party in such a manner or in such quantities as to cause or threaten to cause serious injury in the importing country (Hill, 2005). Conclusion Based on this analysis the regional trading bloc which can be selected is European Union which is also known as the European Community and the European Common Market. This agreement eliminates tariffs, quotas and other barriers on intra community trade which is necessary for expanding a project. This trading bloc devises a common internal tariff on imports from the rest of the world and permits the free flow of factors of production within the community. It helps in harmonizing taxation monetary policies and social security policies between member and non member countries. It presents a common policy on agriculture, transport and competition in the industry (Cherunilam, 2005).

Technology Assisted Reproduction Essays -- Research Reproduction Essay

Technology Assisted Reproduction Introduction Reproduction is fundamental for the perpetuation of a species and therefore is a trait all species possess. Human reproduction is usually not viewed in this context. Extinction of humans is not considered a threat, but the ability to reproduce is an issue of meeting social expectations. Psychologist Dr. Helen Fisher states that society tends to pressure women into feeling that motherhood is their sole connection to being female (Rutter, 1996). Likewise, men are influenced by society into feeling that they need to perform their part by "planting the seed" (Rutter, 1996). Fisher's insight may only represent parts of the reason humans feel the need to reproduce. However, it is evident that the ability to conceive a child is an important issue for most married couples. Unfortunately, complications occur when couples are infertile. Recent developments in reproductive technology have provided alternative methods of reproduction that can greatly enhance an infertile couple's chances of conc eiving. However, there are ethical and legal issues that accompany the use of these reproductive technologies. It is the responsibility of everyone, especially Christians, to become informed of the options reproductive technology can provide as well as the legal and ethical issues involved with their use before taking appropriate action. Background Beginning at puberty, the human male makes millions of sperm a day and continues to do so for about the next 50 years. On the other hand, the human female is born with approximately one million eggs, which are all that she will ever have (Infertility, 1996). The onset of menstruation during adolescence signals the beginning of a cycle in which hormo... ...win births soar with popularity of fertility drugs." Discovery. http://detnews.com/1997/discover/9702/20/02170076.htm. (September 24, 1998). Nelson, J.B. (1973). Human Medicine: ethical perspectives on new medical issues. Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House. "Reproductive Medicines." (1998). Organon. http://www.fertility-net.com/medicines.html. (September 23, 1998). "Reproductive Technology." (1996). Better Health and Medical. http://www.betterhealth.com/HK/ArticleMain/0,1349,178-496-488,00.htm. (September 23, 1998). Rutter, V. T. (1996, March). "Who stole fertility?" Psychology Today. pp. 46-49. Thomasma, D. C. & Kushman, T. Eds. (1996). Birth to Death. New York: Cambridge University Press. Youngkin, Dr. (1997). "Fertility Drugs." Texas Medical Association. http://www.texmed.org/news_events/radio_spots/ne_may0697_30.htm. (September 24, 1998).

Osteomyelitis Essay -- Health, Diseases

Osteomyelitis: Osteomyelitis is a common bone infection caused by bacteria or in some cases, fungus [1]. Osteomyelitis generally occurs by infection of bacteria in several different ways, including via the bloodstream, from neighboring areas of infection, or due to non-sterile joint replacements and internal fixations such as fractures [2]. In 90% of cases, an S. aereus bacterium is the microbial culprit responsible for osteomyelitis [3]. In the cases of open would fractures, osteomyelitis can interfere with normal bone healing and regeneration [4]. Symptoms of osteomyelitis include bone pain, fever, malaise, swelling, redness, chills, excessive sweating, and joint pains [5]. It is reported that in 20% of the cases, the infection is hematogenous, or spread by the blood [6]. The incidence of spinal osteomyelitis was reported to be 1 in 450,000 in 2001 [7]. The incidence of vertebral osteomyelitis is reported to be 24 cases per 1,000,000 and the incidence in children is approximately 1 in 5,00 0 [8]. Approximately 10-15% of people with vertebral osteomyelitis develop spinal-cord compression and approximately 30% of patients with long bone osteomyelitis develop deep vein thrombosis (DVT) [9]. Mortality rates are generally low unless sepsis occurs [10]. The overall incidence of osteomyelitis was found to be higher in developing countries compared to developed nations [11]. Current Clinical Standard of Care: The current gold standard treatment for osteomyelitis is gentamycin or vancomycin impregnated poly methyl methacrylate (PMMA) beads [12]. These beads are surgically implanted at the site of bacterial infection, and the antibiotic will diffuse from these beads [12]. Both vancomycin and gentamycin inhibit bacterial g... ..., the in vivo studies show that the effectiveness of the delivery system in terms of bacterial growth inhibition is comparable to the clinical standard of care, the PMMA beads. Further studies would include determining the compressive strengths of the PUR scaffolds to decide where they could be placed in a load-bearing setting, systemic toxicity studies to ensure that neither the vancomycin nor PUR is present in toxically high concentrations in the serum after implantation, and a prolonged study to show that the PUR scaffold is in fact biodegradable, thereby by-passing the second surgical step which is required for the PMMA beads. Li et al [21] also did not do any studies comparing the PUR-LTI and PUR-HDIt scaffolds under the same experimental conditions. These studies would also be critical to determine which scaffold formulation should be pursued long-term.

Free Essays - Language and Dialect in Adventures of Huckleberry Finn :: Adventures Huckleberry Huck Finn Essays

Language and Dialect in Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Mark Twain's use of language and dialect in the book "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" helped him to bring about the overall feel that he conveyed throughout the book, allowing him to show Huck Finn's attitudes and beliefs concerning the nature of education, slavery, and family values. When the story begins, Huck is seen as a young boy who is not very educated nor wishes to be. He does not seem to care very much for the attention that is given to him by the Widow Douglas, who had taken him in for her son, and her sister, Miss Watson. Huck's moral values were not only the product of his ignorance, but there is relation seen between Huck's attitude and the attitude of his father when Huck is confronted by him. Huck's father is disgusted at the way that Huck seems to be becoming more and more civilized. He states "...they say you can read and write. You think you're better'n your father, now, don't you, because he can't?" Perhaps this statement shows disgust in Huck through not following the moral values of his father, or perhaps this is just merely jealousy on his father's part. Huck's father warns Huck about going to school any more, yet Huck goes anyway, showing great willpower in the character of Huck in that he was gaining an education that he never really wanted in the first place, but soon came to realize that it was something actually useful, and in the fact that he was disobeying his father's orders. Huck's feelings about slavery are shown when he helps Jim, Miss Watson's slave, to escape. Huck's constant statement that "Jim talks like he is white inside" shows that Huck was unique amongst the society in which he lived in the fact that he saw beneath the color of a person's skin and saw the person that was truly there. Jim seems to be the only person that Huck can trust other than Tom Saywer, Huck's best friend. Huck Finn felt that slavery was a cruel injustice because he had gotten to know Jim and found out that there was more to him than just being a slave. Huck had found that Jim was a human being just like himself.

The Public Private Education System Education Essay

The boundaries between the public and private proviso of schooling in Cambodia have become progressively blurred. While the figure of private schools remains fringy and by and large limited to elite schools in urban countries, denationalization is come ining public schools-invisibly and frequently unofficially-on an unprecedented graduated table. Given policy force per unit areas from international fiscal establishments, the boundaries between the populace and the private are sometimes purposefully erased by authorities functionaries in the name of cosmopolitan primary instruction and Education for All ( EFA ) in order to impart private financess into a badly underfunded public instruction system. In this context, the private proviso of instruction non merely becomes attractive to policymakers as a feasible mechanism in shuting the support spread but besides reflects authorities ‘s committedness to deregulating, decentalisation, and marketisation of the economic system since th e 1990s. In add-on to government-led attempts, concealed denationalization of instruction besides thrives at the grass-root degrees in the signifier of private tutoring, which allows instructors to supplement their meagre wages with extra income and offers pupils instruction of higher quality compared to public schools. Notwithstanding the positive facets of private tutoring-such as spread outing cognition and involvements for persons ( Bray, 2007 ) , roll uping human capital for societies ( Psacharopoulos & A ; Patrinos, 2002 ) , and supplying new schemes for get bying with rapid geopolitical passages for a assortment of instruction stakeholders ( Silova, 2009 ; Silova & A ; Brehm, 2013 ) -the private tutoring in Cambodia has grown in size to such an extent that it is now arguably greater in demand, value, and income coevals than the public instruction system. In kernel, private tutoring has become more of import to both instructors and pupils in Cambodia than the public instruction system because of its ability to bring forth higher incomes for instructors and supply a more complete ( and individualized ) instruction to pupils. The private proviso of instruction through private tutoring has assumed similar signifiers to public instruction, going both a differentiated demand ( focused chiefly on to pics examined on national trials or thought to supply better occupation chances ) and extra demand ( run intoing the unequal supply of public instruction ) . It has, in consequence, usurped the legitimacy of public instruction in Cambodia. Although the Kampuchean authorities made efforts to get rid of enrollment fees in the 1990s, prohibit informal fees like buying scrutiny documents from instructors in 2005, and label private tutoring unethical in 2008 ( see Asian Development Bank, 2008 ; Royal Government of Cambodia, 2008 ) , it has non enforced such policies. Left unregulated, the market for private tutoring has begun to falsify the mainstream course of study by switching important parts of curricular content from the populace to the private proviso of instruction. For illustration, some surveies report public school instructors â€Å" blackjacking † their ain pupils into go toing excess lessons ( Bray, 2007 ; Dawson, 2009 ) . Other surveies have shown a important sum of new curricular stuff or prep being presented in private tutoring categories ( Brehm & A ; Silova, 2012 ) . Since many instructors live in poorness because of limited or stretched income ( Benveniste et al. , 2008: 62 ) , keep backing informat ion during mainstream instruction becomes one manner to guarantee a market for private tutoring. Yet, the costs associated with private tutoring prohibit many pupils from go toing these auxiliary lessons, therefore lending to socioeconomic unfairnesss ( Bray, 1999a, 2007 ; Dawson, 2009 ) . Constructing on old research about the range and nature of private tutoring in Cambodia ( Bray, 2007 ; Dawson, 2009 ) , this survey aims to straight address quality and equity deductions of private tutoring in the broader context of denationalization of public instruction. The chief research inquiry examines why, how, and under what fortunes denationalization of public instruction takes the signifier of private tutoring and what deductions this concealed denationalization has for the quality and equity of instruction proviso for Kampuchean young person. Following an overview of old research on private tutoring in the Southeast Asian and international context, we situate the survey of private tutoring in the political, economic, and historical context of Cambodia. Pulling on qualitative and quantitative informations collected in 2011 in one territory in Cambodia ( including three schools in an urban location and three schools in a rural location ) , this survey identifies factors driv ing the demand for private tutoring, compares teaching methods used in public school categories and private tutoring lessons, and examines deductions of private tutoring for long-run societal and economic equity among Kampuchean young person.Gestating Private Tutoring:The Public-Private Hybrid Education SystemSystems of private tutoring are turning worldwide. In Europe, most European Union states experience some degree of private tutoring ( Bray, 2011 ) ; in the United States, private tutoring is estimated to be a US $ 5 billion industry ;[ 1 ]and in Hong Kong, private tutoring has become so popular that images of celebrated coachs are on a regular basis found in newspaper and coach advertizements ( Kwo & A ; Bray, 2011 ) . There is even a Chinese private tutoring company listed on the New York Stock Exchange.[ 2 ]However, private tutoring is non limited to Western and economically developed states. It has besides been found in states every bit diverse as Egypt ( Fergany, 1994 ) , I ndia ( Aggarwal, 1998 ) , and Kenya ( Nzomo et al. , 2001 ) . Asia is possibly the continent where private tutoring is most widespread ( Bray & A ; Lykins, 2012 ) , with the more economically advanced states, like South Korea, Taiwan and Hong Kong, being used as the empirical footing for what some have called â€Å" hyper-education † ( Dierkes, 2010 ) .[ 3 ] Despite the range of private tutoring worldwide and its peculiar prevalence in Asia, it however takes different signifiers depending on context. Bray ( 2009 ) conceptualizes private tutoring as an institutionalised fee-based auxiliary instruction that occurs because of a scope of issues including high bets proving, remedial categories, structural issues like overloaded course of study, and/or intensive societal competition. The common metaphor for private tutoring is â€Å" shadow instruction. † Yet, in our position, in Cambodia the shadow instruction metaphor misses the hybridisation between public and private schooling. Following the treatment of the larger literature on â€Å" shadow instruction † in the subdivisions below, we elaborate the conceptualisation of the intercrossed system of instruction found in Cambodia, concentrating on its divergent and convergent points with the â€Å" shadow † metaphor.The â€Å" shadow † metaphorPrivate tutoring is no rmally referred to as â€Å" shadow instruction † because it mimics ( or â€Å" shadows † ) mainstream schooling ( Stevenson & A ; Baker, 1992 ; Bray, 1999b ; Lee et al. , 2009 ) . The survey of private tutoring within this conceptualization is concerned with topics taught on the national course of study, non extracurricular activities, like guitar lessons or dance. The analogy to a sundial casting a shadow to state the transition of clip is frequently used to depict shadows cast by systems of instruction that tell about the alterations in society ( Bray, 2007, 2011 ; Bray & A ; Lykins, 2012 ) . In peculiar, Bray ( 2009 ) explains that the metaphor of the â€Å" shadow † is utile for several grounds: First, private supplementary tutoring merely exists because the mainstream instruction system exists ; 2nd, as the size and form of the mainstream system alteration, so make the size and form of auxiliary tutoring ; 3rd, in about all societies much more attending focuses on the mainstream than on its shadow ; and 4th, the characteristics of the shadow system are much less distinguishable than those of the mainstream system. ( p. 13 ) The shadow instruction metaphor clearly separates mainstream schooling from private tutoring, and focal points on how the two influence, and are influenced by, one another. Evidence of private tutoring around the universe suggests that there are multiple factors driving the demand for shadow instruction. First, the prevalence of high-stake scrutinies has created a demand for private tutoring among pupils to better prepare for and successfully pass assorted scrutinies necessary to progress to higher degrees of schooling. Second, private tutoring occurs when pupils need excess aid in get the hanging a certain accomplishment or subject that has proven excessively hard to understand during mainstream schooling. Third, there are assorted structural issues that cause private tutoring, such as short school yearss and low instructor wages. Impacting all three of these factors is the increased social force per unit area put on parents and pupils to win in school. Acting as a non-academic fact or taking to private tutoring, equal force per unit area besides exacerbates the demand for excess categories, as parents and pupils perceive private tutoring as an effectual manner to gain an advantage in school, sometimes despite any existent additions in academic accomplishment. High-stakes scrutinies Within the â€Å" shadow † metaphor, private tutoring is often associated with an â€Å" enrichment scheme, † foregrounding its function in fixing pupils for high-stakes scrutinies ( Baker & A ; LeTendre, 2005: 61 ) . In peculiar, high-stakes scrutinies increase pupil and parental anxiousnesss about keeping, registration, or graduation. The premise is that high-stakes scrutinies serve as â€Å" a gate-keeper to instruction and labour market chances † ( Baker & A ; LeTendre, 2005: 62 ) and that pupil success on high-stakes scrutinies would take to better instruction and employment chances in the hereafter. This is why â€Å" cram schools † have emerged in many states to fix pupils of assorted academic abilities ( from remedial to high winners ) for high-stakes scrutinies. For illustration, Tansel and Bircan ( 2006 ) study that extremely competitory higher instruction entryway scrutinies in Turkey create the demand for private tutoring. Similarly, the second ary school choice procedure in Japan reportedly produces a strong logic for pupils to go to juku, an establishment offering a assortment of private tutoring lessons across all educational degrees ( Sawada & A ; Kobayashi, 1986 ; Russell, 2002 ; Roesgaard, 2006 ; Dierkes, 2008 ; Dawson, 2010 ) . Some surveies, nevertheless, have questioned the nexus between high-stakes scrutinies and private tutoring. For illustration, Aurini and Davis ( 2004 ) observed that tutoring concerns are turning well in Canada despite the fact that Canadian universities lack university entryway scrutinies and are non arrayed on a steep prestigiousness hierarchy, as are universities in other states such as the United States and Japan. Although Cambodia has what look to be â€Å" high-stakes † scrutinies in class 9 and grade 12,[ 4 ]the commoditisation of instruction that has resulted from the neoliberal structural accommodation policies in the 1990s has practically eliminated the high-stakes nature of these scrutinies. This has occurred because multiple goods and services are sold during the full scrutiny procedure, go forthing the demand to really analyze or â€Å" cram † for the scrutiny to lone pupils who can non afford the assorted fees or pupils who are ethically opposed to educational corruptness. First, scrutiny replies or mention ushers ( â€Å" cheat-sheets † ) can be purchased from local photocopy shops yearss or hours before the scrutiny. The assorted reply or darnel sheets cost different monetary values depending on their â€Å" known † quality ( i.e. , whether the beginning of the reply or mention sheet is known to come from a instructor, a certain location, an decision mak er, or others ) . Why would pupils â€Å" cram † for scrutinies when they can easy buy replies before the trial? Second, during the scrutiny, many services can be purchased from the two monitors ( instructors administrating the scrutiny ) in each schoolroom or accountants ( the instructor supervising a group of monitors ) standing outside. Students can pay monitors to allow them utilize either mini-textbooks purchased at a photocopy Centre, answer sheets, or work in groups. Additionally, for a higher monetary value, some monitors or accountants are willing to assist pupils by either filling in a clean scrutiny sheet and go throughing it along to pupils, or supplying one-on-one aid during the scrutiny. Sometimes during the procedure, pupils pay monitors, monitors pay accountants, and accountants pay supervisors ( instructors in charge of a group of accountants ) -all to maintain eyes looking elsewhere.[ 5 ]In some instances, parents pay a fee to guarantee a certain monitor or accountant is assigned to their kid ‘s category in order for that pupil to have aid on the more hard topics ( typically mathematics or chemical science ) from a instructor who teaches those topics. The jobs of rip offing on national scrutinies have repeatedly made headlines in the Kampuchean intelligence, but the assorted patterns are widely known to go on despite official warnings ( see Cheng, 2011 ; Chhron, 2010 ; Saoyuth, 2010 ) . As the gloss of any instruction meritocratic order is all but eliminated by the many fees during the scrutiny procedure, these trials are â€Å" high-stakes † in name merely ; few if any pupils feel force per unit area from the scrutiny beyond non holding adequate money to guarantee a high grade. In fact, pupils unable to pay the high costs typically drop out far before the national scrutinies.[ 6 ] Remedial tutoring Private tutoring is frequently thought of as assisting some pupils maintain up with the content taught in authorities school. For illustration, de Silva ( 1994 ) identified several factors that create the demand for remedial tutoring: â€Å" pupil and instructor absence, frequent closing of school, uneffective instruction and carelessness on the portion of the instructor, † every bit good as â€Å" immature, inexperienced or unqualified instructors managing these topics may non be able to take the pupils to a proper apprehension of the subdivisions taught † ( p. 5 ) . In these fortunes, remedial private tutoring serves to â€Å" get the better of these spreads or lacks in pupils ‘ acquisition and construct their assurance enabling them to vie with others and see a happy and pleasant life † ( p. 5 ) . In add-on to demand for remedial private tutoring by pupils and parents, some authoritiess have besides mandated or encouraged the usage of it. The educational system of Bosnia and Herzegovina, for illustration, provides compulsory auxiliary categories for remedial pupils. Traditionally, if more than 50 per centum of the pupils in a category are holding jobs get the hanging the capable affair, the instructor is obliged to form alleged â€Å" remedial categories † in that topic. Remedial categories are held after regular school hours and are an chance for the instructor to make extra work with fighting pupils ( Husremovic & A ; Trbic, 2006 ) . Vouchers are another manner authoritiess can promote the usage of remedial private tutoring. In Australia, the authorities uses verifiers to fund pupils who fall behind to take remedial private tutoring categories ( Bishop, 2007 ) . Remedial private tutoring is besides available in Cambodia, but it is merely one of the many types of private tutoring ( see Table 1 ) . Students who need excess aid with assorted school topics can buy extra educational services to make full spreads in their cognition. However, this is non the chief ground for go toing private tutoring lessons. By and large, Kampuchean pupils attend private tutoring lessons conducted by their instructors as a continuance of their regular school twenty-four hours, non needfully for redress intents ( Brehm & A ; Silova, 2012 ) . If pupils need remedial tutoring, they would hold to take these lessons in add-on to â€Å" regular † private tutoring ( Rien Kuo[ 7 ]) . Remedial private tutoring is frequently referred to as â€Å" excess particular private tutoring † ( Rien Kuo Pises ) and is offered by instructors to pupils in one-on-one or little group lessons. Typically, these remedial categories cost more than Rien Kuo ( regular private tut oring ) , sometimes every bit high as US $ 100 monthly for one hr of analyzing one topic. However, the separation of these two types of private tutoring is non ever along remedial lines. Some pupils attend Rien Kuo when they need excess aid on a certain lesson, and some pupils attend Rien Kuo Pises because it offers a better acquisition environment than Rien Kuo. Structural issues The demand for private tutoring besides stems from structural issues, such as an overladen course of study, deficiency of fiscal resources, or educational corruptness. First, overloaded course of study is frequently attributed to the turning demand for private tutoring, proposing that public school instructors may prosecute in private tutoring after school to learn the stuff they were unable to cover during school hours. For illustration, course of study reforms implemented in many of the post-Soviet democracies in the 1990s â€Å" stretched the bing course of study † by presenting new academic topics ( e.g. , information and communicating engineerings, civics, and foreign linguistic communications ) without well altering the familial Soviet course of study. In Lithuania, Budiene and Zabulounis ( 2006: 213 ) study that the freshly introduced student-centred instruction methods consumed more clip than the old teacher-centred attacks. Private tutoring was therefore used to run i nto the demand for more clip necessary to finish the needed national course of study, utilizing new teaching/learning methodological analysiss. The association between an overladen course of study and private tutoring is besides reported in surveies of private tutoring in Cyprus, Indonesia, Lebanon, Nigeria, and Russia, ( Bray, 2007: 37 ) , every bit good as Southeast/Central Europe and Central Asia ( Silova, 2009 ; Silova et al. , 2006 ) . In Cambodia, pupils and parents perceive private tutoring as a mechanism enabling instructors to decently learn the topics included in the national course of study ( Brehm & A ; Silova, 2012 ) . In peculiar, many parents believe that there is merely non adequate clip in the school twenty-four hours to cover all course of study, doing specific mentions to the decrease of the school twenty-four hours following the debut of double- and triple-shift schooling. Despite the few reported instances of instructors purposefully â€Å" decelerating down â €  content bringing to make a market for private tutoring ( Bray, 1999a: 55 ) , the sensed deficiency of clip nonetheless leads to a perceived demand for more instructional clip merely to supply needed coverage of the national course of study. Second, low educational outgos contribute to the demand for private tutoring. In states financially unable to adequately back up public instruction, private tutoring emerges as a mechanism to supplement low instructor wages, provide smaller category sizes, and offer larning stuffs to pupils outside the national course of study ( Silova, et al. , 2006 ; Silova, 2009 ; Bray, 2010 ; for the Kampuchean instance see Bray & A ; Bunly, 2005 ; Silova & A ; Brehm, 2013 ) . For illustration, Cambodia spends 2.3 per centum of GDP on instruction, puting it among the lowest in the Southeast Asia part and below the universe ‘s norm of 4.8 per centum ( European Commission, 2012 ) . Although the budget allotment to the MoEYS recurrent outgos experienced an addition starting in the 2000s, there has been a steady lessening since 2007 ( see Figure 1 ) . Harmonizing to the European Commission ( 2012 ) , there was a downward tendency in budgeted recurrent outgos between 2007 ( 19.2 per centum ) and 2012 ( 15.9 per centum ) .[ 8 ]Meanwhile, surveies have found that families contribute a larger portion on the instruction per kid than does the authorities: whereas the authorities spends on mean US $ 50 per kid per twelvemonth ( Ratcliff, 2009: 11 ) , households spend between US $ 48 ( rural countries ) to US $ 157 ( urban countries ) per kid per twelvemonth ( NEP, 2007: 18 ) . Of family instruction outgos, about 38 per centum goes to education fees, which includes the cost of private tutoring ( NEP, 2007 ) .Figure 1. MoEYS Budgeted and Actual Recurrent OutgosBeginning: Education Sector Working Group, 2006 ; European Commission, 2012 Third, the deficiency of educational resources disproportionately impact teacher rewards. In Cambodia, there has been a wide consensus among pedagogues, brotherhood leaders, decision makers, and society in general that instructor wages are deficient to cover life disbursals ( Benveniste et al. , 2008 ) . In 2007, for illustration, a primary instructor ‘s base wage was US $ 44 per month, which made it hard ( if non impossible ) for many instructors to afford the basic necessities of nutrient, lodging, and heath attention, every bit good as support any kids or aged household members ( Benveniste et al. , 2008: 59 ) .[ 5 ]To some extent, private tutoring has helped underpaid instructors generate extra income. For illustration, a common 2nd business among Kampuchean instructors, particularly in urban primary schools, is private tutoring ( 41.5 per centum of urban instructors identified tutoring as out-of-school work ; [ Benveniste et al. , 2008: 69 ] ) . Net incomes from private tu toring can stand for about two tierces of the monthly mean base wage with basic allowances ( Benveniste et al. , 2008: 38 ) . Similar to instructors in other geographic countries ( such as the Southeast/Central Europe and the former Soviet Union ) , many Kampuchean instructors have adopted the logic of â€Å" service proviso, † utilizing private tutoring as a cardinal income-generation activity ( Silova & A ; Bray, 2006 ) . Fourth, there is hold in the allotment of financess. In Cambodia, both teacher wages and Programme-Based Budgeting ( unallocated money intended for single schools, which used to be called the Priority Action Programme, or PAP ) are routinely distributed tardily. Teachers have claimed that the distribution of rewards is typically delayed ( VSO, 2008 ) . For illustration, salary expense in January 2012 had non been allocated to instructors in seven states by the terminal of the month ( Denn Ayuthyea, 2012 ) . Anecdotal narratives sing the Programme-Based Budgeting indicate that the money is frequently disbursed yearss before the District or Provincial Offices of Education require a study detailing how the money was spent. This typically leads to distort studies detailing where money was â€Å" exhausted † merely to run into the demands of the MoEYS. A 2nd issue with delayed financess is the escape that occurs between the Ministry of Economy and Finance ( the ministry responsible for let go ofing money to the MoEYS ) and when it reaches instructors. As money is passed from the Economy and Finance Ministry to the MoEYS, which is so sent to the Provincial and District Offices of Education and so eventually received by the schools, money is lost ( or â€Å" cut † in Khmer ) at each phase. One common ailment from instructors is that their wages are ne'er the right sum. Combined, low wages-made even lower by leakage-require instructors to keep 2nd occupations, which about 70 percent claim to hold ( Benveniste et al. , 2008: 68 ) . Finally, structural issues that lead to private tutoring by authorities instructors may ensue in what many perceivers consider educational corruptness ( Chapman, 2002 ) . Educational corruptness has been defined as any pattern where a instructor uses his or her monopoly of power ( delegating classs, allowing admittance, etc. ) over his or her pupils in a system with small answerability ( Bray, 2003 ) . Contributions given to instructors by pupils, for illustration, have been labelled as a â€Å" baneful pattern † ( Hallack & A ; Poisson, 2008: 253 ) because some instructors may honor pupils who donate and punish those who do non. The pattern of instructors keeping private tutoring lessons for their ain pupils, nevertheless, is more hard to clearly label educational corruptness. For illustration, Johnson ( 2011 ) has provided grounds that Kyrgyzstani â€Å" pupils blame the context, non the perpetrators [ i.e. , instructors ] † ( p. 254 ) of corruptness, because â€Å" workers perceived to be lending to the grater good of societyaˆÂ ¦ [ are allowed to ] pervert from the jurisprudence † ( p. 253 ) . Furthermore, Dawson ( 2009: 71 ) â€Å" problematize [ vitamin D ] the word picture of the pattern as ‘corruption ‘ † in Cambodia â€Å" with consideration toward the grossly unequal income of province instructors and the jobs built-in with curriculum clip, content, and instructor teaching methods in the system † by locating the pattern of private tutoring within the â€Å" broad social issues. † To sum up, the â€Å" shadow instruction † metaphor assumes that private tutoring can react to the single pupil demands ( e.g. , maintaining up with the needed school course of study or bettering academic public presentation on trials ) and even systemic educational jobs ( e.g. , overloaded course of study or low instructor wages ) with the aid of the â€Å" shadow instruction † market. For under-achieving pupils, private tutoring may offer an chance for remedial instruction after school hours. For competitively minded pupils, private tutoring may help with more intensive readying for high-stakes scrutinies. For underpaid instructors, private tutoring may supply chances for auxiliary income. And, in the context of an overladen course of study, private tutoring may supply a infinite for pedagogues to learn the stuff that was non covered at school. On the surface, most of the factors normally associated with the turning demand for private tutoring are present in the Kampu chean context. However, they do non explicate the complicated agreements between the public educational system and private tutoring that emerged in the 1990s ( see Brehm & A ; Silova, 2012 ; Brehm, forthcoming A ) . As we suggest in this survey, private tutoring is non a shadow that is separate from mainstream schooling. As the Kampuchean instance illustrates, it may be best understood as a cardinal component in a intercrossed agreement between public schooling and private tutoring, which operates as one individual system and casts its ain shadow.The â€Å" intercrossed † metaphorThe metaphor of a â€Å" shadow † system of instruction reaches its conceptual bounds in the context of Cambodia. During our research, we have found that the term caused more confusion than lucidity among Kampuchean faculty members, instructors, pupils, parents, and policymakers. The ground being that the term â€Å" shadow instruction † suggests fee-based private tutoring is separate f rom, although influenced by, mainstream ( authorities ) school: no affair how a shadow is distorted by the form or size of its object, it will ne'er be the object projecting the shadow. The premise is that the shadow and object are basically separate. In Cambodia, nevertheless, it is normally understood that a kid ‘s instruction requires both authorities and private tutoring categories. Both are inseparable parts of one system necessary to have a complete instruction. As the mainstream schooling progressively relies on private tutoring to complement what is defined as â€Å" instruction, † the shadow and object of schooling have become one. Students typically attend one displacement ( 4 or 5 hours ) of authorities school and so go to another displacement of private tutoring categories ( 1-4 hours, depending on pupil ) each twenty-four hours, sometimes including Sundays, public vacations, and summer holiday. Students who can afford the 300-1000 Riel ( US $ 0.08-0.25 ) hourly fee for private tutoring return to school ( or teacher ‘s place ) to hold their authorities school teacher offer lessons in what appears to be the same system of instruction. In both private tutoring and authorities school categories, further more, everything is for sale, therefore film overing the lines between what is â€Å" public † ( and free ) and â€Å" private ( and for sale ) . This intercrossed system does non wipe out some of the characteristics found in â€Å" shadow † instruction worldwide. Rather, the intercrossed system of instruction that includes both authorities and private tutoring categories has cast a shadow of its ain: some pupils will go to both authorities school and private tutoring categories with their authorities school teacher and schoolmates, and so buy extra remedial or elected private tutoring in one-on-one or group settings-what is called excess particular private tutoring-at a higher cost. There are even companies offering scrutiny readying classs to pupils in the capital, Phnom Penh. Thus, the boundaries between the typical construct of â€Å" shadow † instruction and the mainstream system of instruction, which is being privatized by private tutoring, are progressively blurred in the Kampuchean context.Public-Private Hybrid Education SystemIn the Kampuchean context, private tutoring is best understood in footings of a public-private intercrossed instruction system where public schooling and private tutoring seamlessly merge, projecting its ain shadow. This conceptualisation implies that private tutoring is a compulsory ( private ) part of public instruction, non a deformed shadow, and therefore complements mainstream schooling where it is structurally lacking. Unlike the metaphor of a â€Å" shadow, † the construct of a public-private intercrossed system suggests that public schooling and private tutoring constitute two parts of one system. This conceptualisation moves off from auxiliary private tutoring ( that is, lessons that are excess to the national course of study ) and towards complementary private tutoring ( that is, lessons that are indispensable to the national course of study ) . A public-private intercrossed system of instruction implies that pupils are required to go to and pay for both public schooling and private tutoring to successfully finish the full national course of study. The map of complementary private tutoring therefore extends far beyond â€Å" shadowing † the mainstream system through remedial and/or enrichment instruction chances ( although these signifiers of auxiliary private tutoring continue to be in Cambodia ) . In the Kampuchean context, the chief signifier of complementary private tutoring-w hat is called Rien Kuo-assumes the maps of the mainstream instruction system itself by functioning as an of import mechanism necessary to finish the needed national course of study and increase teacher salaries-both structural failures that have complicated histories through Gallic colonialism, race murder, Soviet support, and broad internationalism/neoliberalism. As an built-in portion of the public-private intercrossed instruction system, private tutoring assumes the same schoolroom features and teaching method as mainstream schooling. Not merely does private tutoring occur inside authorities school edifices ( and frequently in the same schoolrooms where pupils receive official authorities school direction ) and is offered by public school instructors ( normally by the same instructors pupils have during regular school hours ) , but besides each category operates and maps in surprisingly similar ways. In peculiar, the usage of learning AIDSs, group work, interchanging pupil work, blending high and low ability pupils together, and even homework assignments happen in more or less the same mode in authorities school as private tutoring categories ( Brehm & A ; Silova, 2012 ) . In other words, it operates as a seamless system, which merely maps efficaciously when the two parts-public schooling and private tutoring-are offered in tandem. Furtherm ore, the public-private intercrossed instruction system does non halt operation when school is officially closed. Alternatively, instruction continues in the signifier of Rien Kuo Pel Vissmakkal ( Vacances ) or excess survey during vacations ( holiday ) , when kids attend private tutoring lessons during public vacations and summer interruptions to either complete the old twelvemonth ‘s course of study or acquire a head start on the approaching twelvemonth ‘s course of study. In a manner, private tutoring seems to hold been consistently integrated in mainstream schooling, organizing an institutionalised public-private intercrossed educational agreement.Table 1. Different Types of Private Tutoring in CambodiaPublic-Private Hybrid Education SystemRien KuoExtra surveySome instructors conduct private tutoring lessons to their ain pupils after school hours either in school edifices or in their place. The focal point is on covering needed school course of study, which is non ta ught during school hours. This is the most common signifier of tutoring and the focal point of this survey. It is besides referred to as Rean Boban Porn ( auxiliary survey ) or Rean Chhnuol ( survey for hire ) . Rien Kuo Pel Vissmakkal ( Vacances )Extra survey during vacations ( holiday )When pupils finish school in July or August, they frequently have the pick of go toing private tutoring lessons during the summer interruption. These categories are either conducted by their pervious class ‘s instructor to complete the course of study from that class or by the following class ‘s instructor to get down the course of study before the following school twelvemonth. This gives instructors plenty time-either at the beginning or terminal of the year-to complete the national course of study.Shadow EducationRien Kuo PisesExtra particular surveyGovernment school teachers conduct private tutoring lessons one-on-one or for little groups of pupils, typically from the instructors ‘ authorities category. These lessons are conducted after school hours either at the instructor ‘s place or a pupil ‘s place. This type of private tutoring is more expensive than the former, sometime s bing every bit much as $ 100 per month for one-on-one tutoring. This type of private tutoring is either used by pupils for remedial lessons ( i.e. , shadow instruction ) or for replacing authorities school wholly. Indeed, we found one instance during our informations aggregation where a pupil came into understanding with his instructor to go to one-on-one Rien Kuo Pises and was non required to go to authorities school on a regular basis because his instructor would tag him present. This type of Rien Kuo Pises resembles private schooling more closely than shadow or intercrossed instruction. Sala AkchoanPrivate ( tutoring ) schoolThere are many types of private schools in Cambodia. From English linguistic communication based schools to private universities to engineering developing centres-all of these schools are considered Sala Akchoan ( private survey ) . However, there is one type of private survey within this class that is portion of the shadow instruction system. In Phnom Penh ( and possibly other urban countries ) , there are a few trial readying centres that fill schoolrooms each dark as pupils â€Å" cram † for the national scrutinies and university entryway scrutinies. The most celebrated is named Chey Thavy, which was started by a chemical science professor from the Royal University of Phnom Penh. For the class 12 scrutinies, many pupils start fixing in grade 10 or 11. Preparation for the university scrutinies typically takes topographic point during the four months between the class 12 scrutinies ( July/August ) and when the university scrutinies are a dministered. Rien Kuo Anglais/BarangEnglish/French supernumerary surveyGet downing in lower secondary school, the national course of study requires pupils to take foreign linguistic communication, either English ( Anglais ) or Gallic ( Barang ) . Despite that these linguistic communications are on the course of study, some pupils purchase excess categories outside of authorities school in countless private educational centres/schools/homes. This intercrossed system of instruction has besides cast its ain shadow, reflecting the typical maps of private tutoring found within the â€Å" shadow † metaphor ( see Table 1 ) . Similar to private tutoring in other geographic contexts, remedial and enrichment tutoring chances are available in add-on to the traditional Rien Kuo in Cambodia. In peculiar, pupils who need excess assist understanding assorted topics can buy extra educational services to increase their cognition. This type of tutoring is less common and is often referred to as Rien Kuo Pises or â€Å" excess particular private tutoring. † It is offered in the signifier of one-on-one tutoring or little group lessons for pupils who need excess aid get the hanging certain topics. These categories typically cost more than Rien Kuo, sometimes every bit high as US $ 100 per month for a day-to-day category on one school topic. In add-on, private tutoring for enrichment intents is available through private tutorin g concerns in Phnom Phen, where pupils â€Å" cram † for high-stakes scrutinies. In other words, the intercrossed system-where public schooling is integrated with private tutoring-casts a shadow that is comprised of assorted remedial and enrichment tutoring infinites. Building on the bing research of private tutoring in Cambodia, this survey examines the equity issues ensuing from a public-private intercrossed system of schooling. This research looks at the differences and similarities between private tutoring ( Rien Kuo ) and authorities school categories. Datas from this research undertaking has besides been used in other publications to analyze how private tutoring is an extension of authorities school in footings of teaching method and curricular content ( Brehm & A ; Silova, 2012 ) ; the building of a post-conflict societal contract in the 1990s and its impact on the impression of public instruction ( Brehm, forthcoming A ) ; and a historical analysis of mandatory instruction ( Brehm, forthcoming B ) . A Khmer version of this study ( although non a direct interlingual rendition ) is besides available ( Tuot & A ; Brehm, 2012 ) . This study takes an in-depth expression at instruction inside authorities schools and private tutoring schoolrooms, every bit good as the deductions of private tutoring for instruction quality and equity, therefore offering a elaborate reappraisal of the informations collected for this OSI funded research undertaking ( Silova & A ; Brehm, 2011 ) .Research Design and MethodsThe research design consisted of three parts, including ( 1 ) an scrutiny of the province constructions, policies, and local patterns that allow for the being of the private proviso of instruction through private tutoring ; ( 2 ) the differences in the quality of instruction proviso between public schools and private tutoring ; and ( 3 ) the equity impacts on instruction and Kampuchean society because of any quality differences and known cost barriers to accessing private tutoring ( see Figure 2 ) . Using participatory research attacks, this survey utilized methods normally used in Participatory Rural Appraisals ( PRA ) . One of the benefits of utilizing PRA methods is that â€Å" it provides a huge range and infinite for both people every bit good as foreigners to actively take part at every phase † of the research ( Narayanasamy, 2009: 26 ) . By keeping focal point groups ( 5-7 people ) and carry oning one-on-one interviews with many instruction stakeholders ( sample described in item below ) , our informations involved the engagement of many people within both the urban and rural schools under probe. The semi-structured focal point groups provided infinite for participants to research issues of quality instruction and the function private tutoring has on educational equity. We conducted semi-structured interviews as good over the class of the twelve-month informations aggregation period to make common apprehension and trust between the research workers and respondents in hopes of bring forthing more accurate information on subjects that could be sensitive. Additionally, informal interviews helped us by â€Å" prosecuting in existent or constructed duologues in order to understand the people studied in their ain footings ( sometimes described as the insider ‘s position ) † ( England cited in Sin, 2010: 986 ) . Another benefit of utilizing the PRA method is triangulation of information. Our design incorporated non merely data triangulation ( roll uping informations from persons and the synergistic degree among groups ) but besides investigator triangulation and methodological triangulation. Some focal point groups were conducted by a squad of two research workers who so worked through their findings jointly. Furthermore, these informations points were compared with informations points obtained utilizing different methods, viz. , schoolroom observations and the analysis of academic accomplishment ( monthly classs and attending ) for pupils who were go toing private tutoring lessons and those who are non. Additionally, we built off historical analyses and updated papers analyses of authorities policies in old research to the present. The methods used in each school are described below and the instruments used to roll up the informations can be found in the appendix.Figure 2. Research Design a nd MethodsThis survey is based on informations collected between January and December 2011. The sample included six schools in one territory in Cambodia, including three schools in an urban location and three schools in a rural location.[ 6 ]The territory is economically and geographically diverse, offering penetration into assorted countries throughout Cambodia. The sample was intentionally chosen to reflect a scope of private tutoring costs in different schools depending on their geographic ( urban or rural ) location. After roll uping preliminary informations on the cost for one session of private tutoring within all lower secondary schools ( 13 ) in the territory, we selected one lower secondary school with the highest private tutoring costs ( 1,000 Riel, or about US $ 0.25, per session ) and one with lowest ( 500 Riel, or about US $ 0.13, per session ) , which besides corresponded to urban and rural countries severally. We so worked backwards to happen two primary schools that fed into each lower secondary school. The concluding schools selected were chosen by their willingness to take part in the survey.ObservationsA sum of 28 observations were conducted, including 14 observations of public school categories and 14 observations of private tutoring lessons ( see Table 2 ) . However, these observations did non include private tutoring lessons in rural primary schools, because no such lessons were held during the four months of informations aggregation. Observation rubrics were developed utilizing instruments from a World Bank commissioned study on Cambodia ( Benveniste et al. , 2008 ) that focused on learning methodological analysis, schoolroom features, and category clip usage. The inquiries within each of these classs were so compiled into an observation checklist adapted for the last twelvemonth of primary and secondary school ( classs 6 and 9 severally ) , and used for observations of teaching/learning procedures in both public school categories and pr ivate tutoring lessons.[ 7 ]Table 2. Number of Observations by Subject and GradeClassCapableNumber of ObservationsGovernment ClassPrivate TutoringEntireGrade 6 Khmer 7 2 9 Matematics 1 1 2 Grade 9 Khmer 3 2 5 Mathematicss 1 2 3 Physicss 2 3 5 Chemistry 0 4 4Entire141428Tracking pupil attending and accomplishmentDatas on academic accomplishment and attending came from tracking 444 pupils ( see Table 3 ) , including 162 pupils in primary school ( rate 6 ) and 282 pupils in secondary school ( rate 9 ) . The pupils tracked in class 9 came from six categories[ 9 ]across four topics: mathematics, Khmer linguistic communication, chemical science, and natural philosophies. Although we were able to track the same categories in the rural school across all topics, a different group of categories was tracked in each of the topics in the urban secondary school. Therefore, although 282 pupils in class 9 were tracked, the figure of alone pupils in each topic varies depending on which group of categories was tracked in the urban class 9: 171 pupils in mathematics, 208 pupils in chemical science, and 203 pupils in Khmer linguistic communication.[ 10 ]At the primary degree, one category of pupils was tracked in each school.Table 3. Trailing of Student A ttendance and Achievement ( Sample )Experience with Private TutoringLocationEntireRuralUrbanPrimary Private Tutoring 24 43 67 No Private Tutoring 67 28 95 Entire Number of Tracked Students at the Primary Level 162 Lower Secondary Private Tutoring 75 118 193 No Private Tutoring 38 51 89 Entire Number of Tracked Students at the Secondary Level 282Entire Number of Tracked Students444Student attending of private tutoring lessons was tracked utilizing a private tutoring attending sheet specifically designed for this survey. While most participants used the attending sheet, pupil attending in private tutoring within some urban class 9 and all rural class 6 categories was provided by either the remembrances of the instructor, the entire money collected from pupils by the instructor, or an attendance sheet. These tracking systems were discussed separately with each instructor by traveling through the attending list from school and holding the instructor identify either how much money each pupil provided for private tutoring ( a record kept by some instructors ) or by bespeaking their perceptual experiences of how frequently a pupil attended private tutoring ( either by memory or an attendance sheet designed by the instructor ) . This allowed us to place which pupils attended at least one private tutoring lesson during our inform ations aggregation period. The principal of each school provided authorities attending and monthly class sheets. Data presented here screens attendance and monthly classs for one month,[ 11 ]leting for a comparing of academic accomplishment and private tutoring attending among pupils who attend private tutoring and those who do non. The academic tonss for class 9 focused on the topics of mathematics, Khmer linguistic communication, and chemical science. For class 6, we focused on a combination of mathematics and Khmer linguistic communication ( Khmer command, Khmer authorship, and Khmer reading ) . Although the sample is little, covers a short clip, and does non take into consideration external factors impacting pupil accomplishment ( parental instruction, past educational experience of the pupil, proviso of tutoring other than that provided by the instructor, etc. ) , our intent here was non to find causing between private tutoring and pupil accomplishment, but instead to foreground a disparity between pupils who go and do non travel to private tutoring as one factor that divides pupils and contributes to inequality.Focus groups and interviewsFocus groups and interviews were conducted with pupils, parents, and instructors. Participants were selected by confer withing the principal or instructor of each school o r category, who so helped set up interviews and concentrate groups with community members and pupils. Although the principal or instructor could hold purposefully selected or prepared participants, this scheme was the lone politically executable option given authorities limitations. Notwithstanding these restrictions, we did happen all participants willing to speak openly approximately private tutoring and its exclusionary characteristics. Overall, 21 focal point groups were conducted, which included a sum of 118 participants ( see Table 4 ) . Focus groups were split by stakeholder groups ( pupils, instructors, and parents ) and so by their engagement in private tutoring lessons. The end of dividing the stakeholders was to increase the comfort degree among persons in each focal point group in order to research their experiences with private tutoring. The focal point groups besides discussed perceptual experiences of the impact of tutoring on instruction quality and equity. In add-on , informal interviews were conducted with 21 participants, including instructors, pupils, parents, and principals from other schools. These informal interviews focused on the experiences of persons with private tutoring, assisting us to construe some of the findings from the observations and concentrate groups.Table 4. Number of Focus Groups ( and Participants ) in Rural and Urban AreasStakeholdersPrimaryLower SecondaryCombinedClass DegreesEntireRuralUrbanRuralUrbanRuralUrbanTeachers ( entire )6 ( 28 )Private tutoring 1 ( 3 ) 1 ( 3 ) 1 ( 8 ) 3 ( 14 ) Non-private tutoring 2 ( 7 ) 1 ( 5 ) 3 ( 12 )Students ( entire )11 ( 69 )Private tutoring 2 ( 14 ) 2 ( 12 ) 1 ( 7 ) 1 ( 5 ) 6 ( 38 ) Non-private tutoring 2 ( 12 ) 2 ( 12 ) 1 ( 7 ) 5 ( 31 )Parents ( sum )4 ( 23 )Private tutoring 1 ( 5 ) 1 ( 4 ) 2 ( 9 ) Non-private tutoring 1 ( 5 ) 1 ( 9 ) 2 ( 14 )Entire21 ( 118 )Note: The Numberss in parenthesis are the entire figure of participants within each class.Document analysisDocument analysis included a reappraisal of authorities policies and Torahs related to instruction support and instructor wages. In add-on, we analyzed assorted studies on instruction quality and equity in Cambodia published by non-governmental organisations ( NGOs ) and international bureaus ( such as the World Bank, UNICEF, and UNESCO ) . Combined, informations gained through papers analysis, schoolroom observations, academic accomplishment and attending, every bit good as focal point groups and interviews were triangulated to ease proof of informations through cross confirmation from multiple beginnings and informations aggregation techniques. See Table 5 for an overview of the research methods.Table 5. Overview of Research MethodsObservationsA sum of 28 observations were conducted, including 14 observations of public school categories and 14 observati ons of private tutoring lessons. In primary schools, observations were conducted in mathematics and Khmer linguistic communication categories. In lower secondary schools, observations were conducted in Khmer linguistic communication, mathematics, natural philosophies, and chemical science. The same observation process was held for private tutoring lessons conducted by each instructor. How does the instructor Teach during mainstream instruction ( learning methods and curriculum content ) ? Does the instructor favor certain pupils? Who are they? What are the learning methods and content in private tutoring? How are the two instruction manners different?Trailing of Student Attendance and AchievementDatas on academic accomplishment and attending came from tracking 444 pupils, including 162 pupils in primary schools ( rate 6 ) and 282 pupils in secondary schools ( rate 9 ) . The end was to analyze whether ( and how ) private tutoring impacts pupils academic accomplishment in different topics. What are the differences in pupils ‘ academic accomplishment for those who do and make no go to private tutoring?Focus Groups and InterviewsFocus groups with pupils, parents, and instructors were held over the class of informations aggregation to analyze their experiences with private tutoring and their perceptual experience about the impact of private tutoring on instruction entree and quality. A sum of 21 focal point groups were conducted. In add-on, A sum of 21 informal interviews were conducted with parents, instructors, and pupils throughout the informations aggregation period. What are the chief grounds kids attend private tutoring? Which topics are most popular? How much does it be? What are the difference in learning between private tutoring and authorities school? How does private tutoring impact you, your household, and your small town?Document AnalysisGovernment policies and Torahs related to instruction, 1992-present. Focus on authorities support of instruction and instructor wages. What are the system-driven factors ( national policies and Torahs ) lending to the rise of private tutoring?The Nature, Impact, and Implications of Rien Kuo:FindingssConcentrating on the range, nature, and deductions of Rien Kuo, the findings of the survey are organized around the undermentioned three chief classs: ( 1 ) course of study differences between Rien Kuo and mainstream schooling, ( 2 ) accomplishment differences among pupils go toing private tutoring and those who do non, and ( 3 ) social affects of private tutoring. Before researching each of these subjects in more deepness, it is of import to supply a few descriptive statistics on the strength and signifier of private tutoring within our sample.General features of Rien KuoOf the 282 pupils tracked in class 9, 193 pupils ( 68.4 per centum ) attended at least one private tutoring category during the clip of the informations aggregation. At the primary school degree, the range of private tutoring was lower, with 41.3 per ce ntum of all surveyed pupils ( 67 out of 162 ) go toing private tutoring. The strength of private tutoring varied by topic in class 9, with 57 per centum of surveyed pupils go toing private tutoring in mathematics, 54 per centum in Khmer linguistic communication, and 37 per centum in chemical science ( see Table 6 ) . Comparing the strength among topics, a similar per centum of pupils accompanied private tutoring lessons in Khmer linguistic communication and mathematics, but a smaller per centum of pupils accompanied chemical science lessons. One account for the difference in frequence between Khmer linguistic communication and mathematics with chemical science is the manner in which classs are calculated. Each month instructors administer their ain capable scrutinies to their categories. These scrutinies are neither standardized in footings of content nor monitored in footings of rating rubrics. The tonss across all topics are so added for each pupil and divided by the entire figure of possible points, which varies by month depending on the topics covered. Average capable and overall classs are reported monthly on pupil mark sheets, bespeaking the ranking of the pupil among his or her schoolmates. Across all degrees of schooling, the topics of Khmer linguistic communication and mathematics account for 100 points ( sometimes more[ 12 ]) while the other topics merely account for 50 points on monthly mark sheets. This means hiting higher in Khmer linguistic communication or mathematics will hold a greater positive impact on pupils overall grade each month than making good on topics like chemical science, which merely account for 50 points.[ 13 ] A farther analysis of informations by geographic location ( rural versus urban ) reveals a higher strength of private tutoring usage in urban countries compared to rural countries. In primary schools, for illustration, 60.5 per centum of urban pupils attended private tutoring categories compared to 26.4 per centum of pupils in rural countries. The one exclusion within our informations set is for Khmer linguistic communication private tutoring in class 9 where more rural pupils attended private tutoring than urban pupils. This divergent determination can be explained in two ways. First, it can be partly attributed to parental pick. If parents can merely afford private tutoring in one topic, Khmer linguistic communication was perceived as most valuable because of the rating policies described above and the general perceptual experience that literacy is a necessary life accomplishment. Second, within the rural categories tracked, 19 pupils who attended private tutoring were supported ( i.e. , provided money to go to private tutoring ) by an NGO. Without fiscal support to pay the private tutoring fees, these 19 pupils would most probably non hold attended the excess classs in any topic. Controling for these pupils, we find that merely 39 per centum of pupils attend Khmer linguistic communication private tutoring in the rural school compared to 52 per centum in the urban school. This is in understanding with the general determination of a higher strength of private tutoring within urban schools. There were besides noticeable differences between authorities school and private tutoring category sizes. Since Rien Kuo is seldom offered in a one-on-one scene and is alternatively taught to larger groups of pupils, it closely resembles categories in mainstream schools. Nevertheless, Rien Kuo category sizes are by and large smaller than those in mainstream schools.[ 14 ]Based on our observations and attending trailing, the mean category size of authorities school in class 9 ( both urban and rural ) was 42 pupils. By contrast, private tutoring categories were, on norm, 21 pupils. Interrupting these informations down by location, we find that the mean category size in authorities school is 56 pupils in the urban lower secondary school and 35 pupils in the rural lower secondary school. By contrast, private tutoring categories were on mean 37 pupils and 17 pupils in urban and rural schools, severally. This suggests that private tutoring categories are ( 1 ) smaller than authorities scho ol irrespective the location, and ( 2 ) urban countries have larger category sizes in both authorities school categories and private tutoring lessons compared to rural countries.Table 6. Intensity of Private Tutoring by Subject, Grade 9Students in authorities categoryStudents in private tutoring% of pupils in private tutoringMathematicssUrban 58 35 60.34 Rural 113 63 55.75 Entire 171 98 57.31ChemistryUrban 95 58 61.05 Rural 113 19 16.81 Entire 208 77 37.02Khmer LanguageUrban 90 47 52.22 Rural 113 64 56.64 Entire 203 111 54.68Course of study differencesGiven that Rien Kuo by and large takes topographic point on school evidences, normally in the same schoolrooms where authorities school categories are held, there are some interesting continuities between Rien Kuo and mainstream schooling. Data collected from schoolroom observations and triangulated with interviews and concentrate groups suggest that private tutoring is in many respects a continuance of authorities school in footings of learning methodological analysis and course of study content ( see Table 7 ) . For illustration, instructors appear to delegate prep ( 43 per centum of private tutoring categories observed and 64 in authorities categories ) and even present new stuff in private tutoring lessons ( 36 per centum of the private tutoring categories and 79 per centum of authorities categories ) . Likewise, pupils appear to be involved in similar activities in both authorities categories and private tutoring lessons, including replying multip le pick inquiries ( 14 per centum ) and reacting to instructors give illustration to whole category ( 78 per centum ) .Table 7. Similarities between Government School and Private Tutoring ClasssTeacher PedagogyGovernment SchoolN=14% of categories observed ( figure of categories observed )Private TutoringN=14% of categories observed ( figure of categories observed ) High ability pupils work with low ability pupils 28.6 ( 4 ) 14.3 ( 2 ) High ability pupils help learn whole category 71.4 ( 10 ) 50.0 ( 7 ) Name on weak pupils to reply inquiries 50.0 ( 7 ) 42.9 ( 6 ) Students answer multiple pick inquiries 14.3 ( 2 ) 14.3 ( 2 ) Students answer inquiries at board 100.0 ( 14 ) 71.4 ( 10 ) Teacher assigns prep 64.3 ( 9 ) 42.9 ( 6 ) Teacher nowadayss new stuff 78.6 ( 11 ) 35.7 ( 5 ) Teacher provides whole category direction 100.0 ( 14 ) 85.7 ( 12 ) Students answer in chorus 71.4 ( 10 ) 64.3 ( 9 ) Teacher gives illustration to whole category 78.6 ( 11 ) 78.6 ( 11 ) The focal point groups with instructors provided in-depth qualitative information to congratulate the observations sing learning methodological analysis and the course of study used in authorities school categories and private tutoring lessons. The first subject that emerged in the focal point groups was the overpowering sentiment that the national course of study is excessively long to finish during authorities school hours. Some instructors said they had to â€Å" hotfoot † through the course of study to complete on clip and feared being held accountable for non completing. For illustration, one instructor who conducts private tutoring explained: We rush to maintain up with the course of study. [ During official school hours ] , we teach merely theory and give merely a few illustrations. If pupils go to private tutoring, they can pattern [ at the board ] because there are fewer pupils who goaˆÂ ¦We can non acquire all pupils to pattern [ at the board ] in authorities category. It requires a batch of clip. The â€Å" haste † to complete the course of study is a consequence of a course of study excessively â€Å" full † to finish during the allotted clip. One history instructor who sends his kids to private tutoring explained: â€Å" [ The ministry ] allows small clip [ to learn ] . I teach based on the [ allowed ] clip. If the course of study is non finished, [ so ] I allow it travel because there is non adequate clip. [ Although ] I try my best, it is still impossible [ to learn everything ] . † The bulk of instructors agreed that the course of study clip provided by the MoEYS was non sufficient for pupils to pattern the theory they learned during school hours and that they conducted private tutoring to supply more pattern clip for pupils to complement the cognition gained. In other words, private tutoring provided the necessary clip to complete the course of study to a perceived higher criterion. As one instructor who does non carry on private tutoring explained, â€Å" Private tutoring instructors take the lessons learned in the authorities category and supply more pattern in private tutoring. They even add more [ stuff excluded in the authorities category ] . † From instructors ‘ positions, quality instruction could non be achieved during regular school hours. One of the