Case Study Mcdonalds Essay

It operates over 35000 restaurants in more than 100 countries on six continents. 5 It has an unparalleled global infrastructure and competencies in restaurant operations, real estate, retailing, marketing and franchising. McDonald’s website says that it is a leader in the area of social responsibility and is committed to protecting the environment for future generations. 7 Strong and wide communication channel in the market. (deng, 2009) 8 Play areas for children. 9 Large target markets. 10 Recession resistant (Birchall, 2008) 11 In September 2003 successful backing up of new products was launched with MTV’s advertising campaign featuring the new tag line, â€Å"I’m Lovin’it†. (Jennifer, 2004) WEAKNESSES 1 McDonald’s has not achieved its growth expectations in past several years. Narrow Product lines. (deng, 2009) 3 McDonald’s brand association as a junk food. (deng, 2009) 4 Few option for healthy eating 5 High employee turnover rates. (macy, 2012) 6 McDonald’s also have some bad effects on environment. (ltd. , 2006) 7 McDonald’s also faces many types of legal actions on many issues. OPPORTUNITIES 1 Product packing for McDonalds now features QR codes for customers to get nutritional information. Mcnamara, 2013) 2 Opportunity to enlarge market, the consumers who care about health issue. (deng, 2009) 3 Slightly changing market brand image of McDonalds. (deng, 2009) 4 In 2009, McDonald’s launched its hefty Angus burger in all U. S. A locations. 5 Introduction of trans-fat-free French fries in all restaurants in the U. S. A and Canada. 6 Introduction of McCafe. 7 Testing marketing fruits and vegetables as happy meal at some outlets. 8 McDonald’s franchises overseas became a favorite target of people and groups expressing antiglobalization sentiments. Entry into new and highly popular product categories. THREATS 1 Public attack about obesity issue. (deng, 2009) 2 Changing taste of consumers. (deng, 2009) 3 Unable to keep patrons as special order sandwiches offered by rivals Burger King and Wendy’s. 4 Promotional plans like McDonalds game found conspiracy with 51 people charged in a part of scam winning $24 million by stealing winning McDonald’s tickets. 5 McDonalds showed a delayed effect than other restaurants operators in switching over to zero trans-fat cooking oil. In 2001 McDonald’s was sued for hurting religious sentiments by vegetarian groups for not revealing its flavors in French fries as it added beef extract to vegetable oil and showing it as veg in menu. 7 Consum ers began filing law suits that eating at McDonald’s had made them over weight. 8 Competition from burger kings and Wendy’s. (Thomadsen, 2007) MARKET SEGMENTATION TARGET MARKET| BABY BOOMERS| GENERATION X| GENERATION Y| GENERATION Z| DEMOGRAPHICS| 45-65+| 35-44| 19-34| 0-18| GEOGRAPHICS| URBAN| URBAN| URBAN| URBAN| PSYCOGRAPHICS| More concerned with low cholesterol food| More concerned with low fat food| More concerned with physical fitness food products| Generally eats taste oriented food products| BEHAVIOURAL| Mostly concerned with good quality of food products| Requires access with quick and fresh food service| Generally catch-up food by themselves by reaching out| Check out with friends and family| ISSUE ANALYSIS In 2004,Morgan Spurlock’s documentary film Super-Size Me gave very criticism to McDonald’s fast â€Å"nutrition†, in which he shows how he gains fat and destroy his health by eating McDonald’s. 2 In 1998 McDonald’s started â€Å"Made for you† System but it was not successful. There was a decrease in growth of sales in stores. 3 In 1999 before the implementation of â€Å"made for you â€Å"scheme ,McDonald’s planned to provide about 190 million in financial assistance to its franchisees ,but the actual cost of implementing the system ran much higher than the corporation had estimated. In 2001, 51 people were charged conspiring to rig McDonald’s game promotions over the course of several years, revealing that $24 million of winning McDonald’s game tickets had been stolen as a part of scam. 5 In 2004, McDonald’s was sued for extracting a small amount beef added in to the vegetable oil used for cooking French fries. 6 Many people still complain that the food served by McDonald’s is not hot to eat. RECOMMENDATIONS PRODUCT :- 1 McDonald’s should provide hot food to eat because many customers complaint that their food is not so hot to eat otherwise it will affect sales. McDonalds should bring some new healthier products for all ages because bad effect on health is one of the weaknesses of McDonald’s and bringing some healthier food will help to overcome this image. 3 McDonald’s should provide some free snacks because it will help it compete with its competitors and increase sales. 4 McDonalds should make their products in fat free oil because it will have good effect on health. 5 McDonald’s should also provide some regional food because in this way some rural people will also start accepting its products. Launching of new fried and bone in treats in Chicago. PRICE:- 1 The price of products should be affordable because if they will not be affordable to small income group then its sale will be affected and it will also give the opportunity to competitors to increase their sales. 2 The prices of products should be regularly checked so as to compete with competition because people will buy those products which they can get in low price. PLACE:- 1 McDonald’s should open new franchises in small cities also . It will help them to expand its business and increase growth. McDonald’s should increase the number of its franchises in all countries in order to expand its business. PROMOTION:- 1 McDonald’s should provide some discount on more products purchased because in this way people will buy more. Because some people will start purchasing more items if they can get discount. 2 McDonald’s should provide home delivery service because sometimes some people can’t go to store in order to pu rchase them. It will increase sales. 3 McDonald’s should provide online sale because in this way people can place their orders online. McDonald’s is working on new salads and wraps . (wong, 2013) 5 McDonald, s will test the new fried and bone in treats in Chicago. (wong, 2013) 6 Success of mighty wings in Atlanta. (wong, 2013) BEST RECOMMENDATIONS PRODUCT:- McDonald’s should provide some healthier food for all ages because health obesity is the major problem with McDonald’s . In this way they can get good image regarding health. PRICE:- Prices of products should be regularly checked in order to compete with competition because people will cheapest product. PLACE:- McDonald’s should open new small franchises at small cities also because it will help him to expand its business and increase growth rates. PROMOTION:- McDonald’s should provide home delivery service because sometimes people can’t go to store in order to purchase product. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bibliography Birchall, J. (2008). McDonalds claims fast food sales fighting off slowdown. Financial times. deng, t. (2009, may). McDonalds new strategy on changing attitudes and communication. International journal of marketing studies, 37-42. Jennifer, R. (2004). online branding :the case of McDonald’s. ritish food journal. ltd. , n. m. (2006). ICCR sponsered proxy resolutions on genetically modified organisms gain recognition among shareholders at wendy’s McDonald’s . financial wire. macy, a. (2012). financing a remodel:a case of McDonald’s Franchisee. journal of case research in business and economics. Mcnamara, B. (2013). McDonalds give the people wha t they want. Nutrition business journal. Thomadsen, r. (2007). product positiong and competion:the role of location in the fast food industry. Marketing science. wong, V. (2013). will McDonald’s mighty wings fly? Business weak.

Fair Value Accounting Essay

This paper attempts to answer the question: â€Å"Is it reasonable to blame fair value accounting for any of the Wall Street mess? † This paper in effect settle whether the use of fair value accounting by listed companies in the major stock exchanges in the US, particularly those found in Wall Street, which the caused fall in prices of the stocks of these companies, was required of companies without justification; hence, it should be blamed for the mess. 2. Analysis and Discussion Any mess in the Wall Street is defined for this paper as one causing the stock prices of companies list in major stock exchanges of the US to fall and that it resulted to losses to investors. To have reasonable basis to blame fair value accounting for any Wall Street mess, does not simply mean that fair value accounting was the necessary cause of fall in the prices of corporate stocks but that the requirement of fair value accounting must not be fair. The question that must be decided therefore is whether fair value accounting is fair as basis of valuing corporate assets, liabilities and equity. A situation or condition is fair if it gives what is due to a person. If the concept of fair value is used in the context of an asset purchased or liability assumed in business, fair value implies that said asset or liability must neither be overpriced nor underpriced whether perceived or otherwise. The law of economics would have fair value as one representing that market price or that equilibrium price of a product or service (Samuelson and Nordhaus, 1992) which is also the value of something from a seller that is not forced to sell or from a buyer that is not forced to buy. Investors, creditors, and other persons expect to be treated fairly as they enter into transactions in terms of value that they will give in exchange to what they will receive. To illustrate, a person or company planning to invest in stocks will appreciate what is fair if the said person or company will earn sufficient return above cost of capital in exchange for the risks being faced by such person or company (Brigham, 2002). To have what is fair, the investors must know the accurate and reliable information about of the company to guide them about their chances of gaining or losing money. These users deserve to have the opportunity to have the true or accurate value of asset, liability or equity being dealt with in a business transaction as basis for valuing the stocks that they will invest with. Financial reports prepared companies, as guided by Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) accounting standard under fair value accounting, will provide these users the opportunity. Specifically, fair value accounting was made pursuant to FAS 157 as issued by US FASB for companies to reflect the accounting information on the real values of assets, liabilities and equity in the balance sheet as contrasted with presenting the information using the historical cost accounting (Meigs and Meigs, 1995). A group of analysts and portfolio managers actually formed part of those who influenced the passage of the fair value accounting for more relevant information in decision making (Chasan, 2008). Under FAS 157 defines fair value is defined as the price that would be received â€Å"to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants in a measurement date† (Sortur, 2007). If companies have restated their financial statements from historical cost accounting to fair value accounting, the purpose was laudable since in simple terms, the intention is to make the information more relevant, more accurate and more reliable for decision makers. If stockholders got affected in terms of lower price of stocks as a result of restatement of financial statements, the error was when they were made the purchase of their investments under the historical cost accounting. Since fair value accounting may also increase the value of the stocks if fair value is higher than cost, it could not be asserted that it should be blamed for the fall of prices but not praised for increased in price increase of stock prices. 3. Conclusion It can be concluded that it is not reasonable to blame fair value accounting for any of the Wall Street mess since fair value accounting is only bringing out what is fair to investors who deserved to know accurate and reliable information for making decisions. Fair value accounting is an accounting standard made by FASB that was made as a requirement from the corporation which must present truthful and reliable information for investors. As an alternative to historical value of accounting, fair value is expected to have present company more reliable information about their assets and liabilities in accordance with market prices. Its implementation may have caused companies to present their financial information and if the information presented were more truthful, the consequence of causing problems to companies should only be secondary to the purpose of providing objective and more reliable financial information. Any fall in stock prices from Wall Street may in fact have been caused by companies having to restate their financial statement pursuant to fair value accounting but the intention was to reflect to truer value of assets and liabilities of the corporations whose stocks got affected. Losers should not blame fair value accounting since the latter is just a guide to have more truthful information and they would have a change also of higher stock prices under fair value if warranted by market forces. If there was no basis for such more truthful information, then restatements of financial information using fair value would not have been made in the first place. If buyers and sellers are not being compelled to complete their transaction, fair value accounting must be held as fair and cannot be blamed for the mess. In fact, fair value accounting should have been introduced years ago for it could have saved some abuse and a lot of problems (Rees-Mogg, 2007). References: Brigham and Houston (2002), Introduction to Financial Management, Thomson-South Western, USA, 2002 Chasan, Emily (2008), Is fair value accounting really fair? {www document} URL, http://www. reuters. com/article/reutersEdge/idUSN1546484120080226, Accessed November 21, 2008 Meigs and Meigs (1995), Financial Accounting, McGraw-Hill, Inc, London, UK Rees-Mogg (2007), Why FAS 157 strikes dread into bankers, {www document} URL http://www. timesonline. co. uk/tol/comment/columnists/william_rees_mogg/article2852547. ece, Accessed November 21, 2008. Samuelson and Nordhaus (1992), Economics, McGraw-Hill, Inc, London, UK Sortur (2007) Fair Value Measurement, The Chartered Accountant {www document} URL, http://icai. org/resource_file/96471564-1574. pdf, Accessed November 21, 2008

Business overview of Deloitte Consulting

Business overview of Deloitte Consulting Deloitte Consulting is one of the world’s largest consulting firms, with 12,000 consultants serving more than one-third of the Fortune Global 500 in more than 30 countries. It’s a powerful firm that incorporates all types of services in its business from research through implementation. More importantly through the eyes of it’s employees it is seen as a humane, balanced, and enjoyable place to work, where talent can rise quickly. The firm which started out as Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu (DTT) was initially an international accounting firm, founded in 1845 by former bankruptcy clerk William Welch Deloitte. As the firm began to grow there was increased pressure on the business to separate from their parent accounting firms, and a new strategy had to be put in motion. In March of 2003, the firm announced it had ended discussions to separate its consulting practice from the parent accounting firm, reasons included a tight credit market and poor economic conditions. Del oitte Consulting, is now fully merged back into its parent company, which is now known simply as Deloitte. The company today competes with other large and mid-size consulting firms for the business of companies that do more than $500 million in sales. It’s known primarily for its one stop shop designs that deliver â€Å"executable strategies† that it will help implement for clients of all sizes. Some of these clients include Boeing, GM, Chevron Texaco, and retailer The Gap amongst other. One of the ways Deloitte stands out form its competitors is by providing clients with a more personalized contract which takes into mind their short and long term goals as well as other factors. By have well trained consultants and project staff the firm is able to initiate strong conversation and detailed research. They are able to collaborate better and are more responsive to their needs. Deloitte has services in five service areas. The firm integrates process capabilities and servic e lines into each service area. Deloitte consultants work with eight industry groups in three geographic regions. When new people are hired into one of the regional offices they generally work in a particular geographic region. When starting your career with Deloitte, as you become more familiar with the processes ways of doing things you’ll gradually specialize in a service line and industry group. However as with any small or large organization you will initially work within different areas and on different project types. The four key business areas the company operates in include : Audit Financial advisory, Tax Consulting Market Position Deloitte Consulting is seen as one of the leaders in the industry competing with other large and midsize consulting firms. Since it’s had a reputation of quality service and commitment to it’s clients they have been able to provide a wide range of general management and information technology consulting services all around th e world. One of the main strengths the firm has is in operations consulting, as well as strategic planning, financial management, and productivity. Deloitte Consulting is in the top 3 consulting firms in the world with other firms such as, IBM and Accenture. based on Consultants News’ estimates, which include revenue from both Deloitte Consulting and DTT. On the other hand, some research firms have listed Deloitte Consulting’s revenue the highest amongst its competitors; this would rank Deloitte Consulting (independent of DTT) at number six on the following list. In 2009 Deloitte as the worldwide leader in the consulting marketplace based on aggregate revenue, growth and market share for 2009.

Intrusion Detection System Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Intrusion Detection System - Assignment Example The HIDS and NIDS are protective mechanisms, in a computing system that detects and prevents efforts of accessing information from an-authorized parties. I agree with the notion that NIDS is widely based since the computer administrator can install it at various destinations all over the internal computer system. Â  I agree with the notion that HIDS is installed on a workstation or server. This is because the system is an agent of the secured host. Due to this, HIDS serves a particular host and can serve a particular purpose. Â  I agree with David’s answer that the methods of security testing are the white, black and gray box testing. However, I do not agree with the answer that the black box testing system involves knowing the architecture and design of the computer before the testing. Â  Black-box system does not entail any knowledge of architecture, or the interior workings of the computer system, while white box testing involves knowledge of the architecture and design of the computer system. Grey box system involves testing the computing system with limited knowledge of the system, and not as defined by David. Â  I agree with the notion that the person conducting black box testing is an end user. This is because the person doing the test cannot access the source code of the computing system. I also agree with the notion that a system designer conducts white box testing. Â  I agree with David’s notion that Vulnerability testing seeks to identify weaknesses in a computer system, and on his notions that vulnerability tests seek to identify the best places to attack a system. I agree with an answer concerning penetration testing, and its application. Â  

Social Media and Mobile Search Marketing in Saudi Arabia Research Proposal

Social Media and Mobile Search Marketing in Saudi Arabia - Research Proposal Example According to reports released recently, there are approximately over three million Saudi Arabian Internet users who spent over three billion dollars in making purchases through ecommerce in the year 2010 (Bartlett, 2001). The biggest selling products were electronics which came second to the sale of software products during the year 2010 (Hillman et al, 2008). This implies that businesses who had invested in the internet during the year made big profits as a result of their investment activities. Hotels and airports also recorded booming online business, as they were the top earners for online businesses in the kingdom (Borysowich, 2010). Currently, reports indicate that there are signs that these values will continue rising within the next few years. This is because more people in their populations are joining the Internet and the service providers have also upgraded their systems (Hillman et al, 2008). For instance, the STC Company within the country has upgraded her broadband leve ls of penetration from 4% to 22% in the remote areas of the nation which were previously not able to access the service (Ader, 2008). This means that there is great support for similar businesses from the providers as they will be able to reach and trade with more citizens along with non-citizens in a more effective manner (Vithal and Jansen, 2009). The marketers participating or rather using the Internet should therefore begin developing their campaigns in the service. This is in view of the infrastructural developments going on and the profitable nature of ecommerce within the country (Hillman et al, 2008). There are predictions made that suggest that Internet spending is going to be on the rise as more of the wealthy people in the nation get faster access to the Internet. This is... As the discussion stresses the marketers participating or rather using the Internet should therefore begin developing their campaigns in the service. This is in view of the infrastructural developments going on and the profitable nature of ecommerce within the country. There are predictions made that suggest that Internet spending is going to be on the rise as more of the wealthy people in the nation get faster access to the Internet. This is in addition to the improvements being made in payment gateways to facilitate safer and faster transfers of funds. It is therefore the ideal moment for investors willing to invest in the sector to start exploring safe avenues and businesses to indulge in. This paper discusses that the use of the Internet within the Saudi Arabian population has led to an increased awareness of their rights and has also helped reduce the oppression against their women. For example, a campaign was started in the country using YouTube videos to sensitize the people on the right of a woman to drive. This was after the site highlighted the plight of a woman who was arrested on two separate occasions for driving and put into custody despite her driving safely. The aired clip raised a great stir within the population and this is a good example of just how influential the Internet is within the country. The Internet has been widely used across many family lines and countries to connect people and businesses, which makes it a suitable tool for marketing products to the population.

Reducing Secondhand Smoke on Children Research Paper - 4

Reducing Secondhand Smoke on Children - Research Paper Example So the one sure shot and authentic way of curtailing second hand smoke in the case of children is to convince the adults and guardians to quit smoking. Once the parents and guardians quit smoking it automatically removes the source of secondhand smoke at home and in the family car where the children are most vulnerable of catching on secondhand smoke and fumes (Harutyunyan et al., 2013). If this is not possible than the second best option is to request the family members and people in general not to smoke at home and in the family car (Harutyunyan et al., 2013). Besides the parents need to make it a point to assure that the people who take care of children like babysitters and nannies do not smoke around children. The others possible place where children could get exposed to secondhand smoke are the places, including the public places where smoking is allowed (Gordon, Friel, & McGranachan, 2012). Any child visiting such a place, including say a public space is poised to get exposed to secondhand smoke. So parents and guardians should look to it that they do not visit such places with their children where smoking is allowed. Keeping children away from public places where smoking is allowed is one salient way of cutting the secondhand smoke on children (Stosic, Milutinovic, Lazarevic, Blagojevic, & Tadic, 2012). This includes choosing such restaurants and recreational places which are smoke free or where smoking is not allowed (Stoic et al., 2012). This also tends to include such indoor places where smoking is allowed and where children are more likely to get exposed to secondhand smoking. It is a known fact that secondhand smoke causes greater harm when it is inhaled at such places which are c losed or are not well ventilated. The parents and guardians do need to understand the fact that secondhand smoke is utterly hazardous and could wreck havoc on the health and well being of

Life on Mars (Earth Science Course) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Life on Mars (Earth Science Course) - Essay Example Space explorations opened new avenues and enhanced expectations of discovery of extraterrestrial life. Scientists describe six basic environmental conditions suitable for expected life. If an environment contain all these six environmental conditions within prescribed limits then it can be expected that life may exist there. The data collected by space probes negates the presence of advanced life on other planets of our solar system. But the presence of primitive life in past on some of the planets including Mars can not be ruled out. As stated above it is almost certain that no advanced life exists in the planets of solar system. But the efforts for effort for detecting primitive life in our solar system are going on. It is also believed that life can come into view because of changes of organic matter from nonorganic. It is also assumed that same process resulted in emergence of life on earth. Many scientists like American chemists Stanley L. Miller and Harold C. Urey gave experimental support for this assumption presented by Oparin. The similar organic activity was detected on Mars by the Viking landers in 1976. ( "Exobiology." The Columbia Encyclopedia. 6th ed. 2004. ) It is generally accepted that that Mars once had water, on the basis of this acceptance it is supposed that once life would have existed on the red planet in its primitive stage. Some evidences are presented in the support of this supposition in the form of reported presence of fossil bacterial life on Martian meteorite. But his evidence is not widely accepted and many scientists are of the view that it is not enough to arrive at a correct conclusion. 1.4 Fossil bacterial life found on a Martian meteorite Scientists are of the view that enough evidence of microscopic bacteria fossils was found on some the meteorites fell on various countries. In France Orgeuil meteorite fell in 1864 and on some other meteorites traces of organic material were found that indicate presence of microscopic creatures like bacteria. But another group of scientists think that the organic material was the result of some other factors and the evidences were not correctly interpreted. It is also not certain that these mateorits came from Mars Keeping in view all the above discussed information and interpretions, it is the primary aim this to analyze and discuss the possibilities of life on Mars. 2. Chronological Order Famous American Scientist Sagan Edward is known for his popular investigation of Radio emissions from Planets of Solar system. He was one of the first scientists made some correct predictions about Mars that were later found correct. He was instrumental in changing perception about Mars in those days. 2.1 The early orbiter evidences The information acquired from the data provided by early orbiters suggests that early Mars had a warm and wet atmosphere. Life can exist in such type of claim. But this type of atmosphere must have existed in the remote past. A meteorite that was

Substance Dualism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Substance Dualism - Essay Example This essay discusses that pertinent questions regarding mind-body processes are the ontological and the causal question. The former attempts to establish what amounts to mental state and to physical state, while the latter attempts to establish whether either of these states influence one another, and the manner in which such influence, if it exists, is achieved. Substance dualism addresses these questions by observing that properties describe objects, hence the existence of one makes the other inexcusable. A normal human being is thus made up of two substances, the first being the body, and the other being the person, which refers to the mind and is logically synonymous to the soul. Definition of the latter transcends thought and consciousness, as noted by Descartes, yet it remains plausible to say that the person and the body have dissimilar identities, hence are different substances.This research highlights that  the argument for substance dualism rests with Descartes conception s that the essence of mind is thought while that of the body is extension, with the resulting duality being reminiscent of the duality of substances.  The first premise is rather direct since it espouses that if two objects say x and y are identical, then they must be the same object, which implies that one cannot exist without the other.  Denying the co-existence would mean denying the very first relationship, that of identity.

Trying to "get tough" on gun crimes, especially through Essay

Trying to "get tough" on gun crimes, especially through mandatory prison sentences, will not reduce gun related crime - Essay Example In 2012 FBI statistics showed that a total of 8855 homicides were caused by firearms and from the total, 6371 were committed using handguns. On the contrary, 40% of the deaths were also attributed to gun related suicides. Last year, gun related violence accumulated to 16,829 (Webster and Jon 76). Usually the gun related violence is common in the poor-urban areas and is mostly linked with gang violence. Majority of the violence is frequently caused by the youths commonly attributed by the males. Several legislations have been instituted at the state, federal and the local level in an effort to prevent gun violence. Gun purchasing restrictions, law enforcement systems, prison sentencing, community-outreach and education programs are some of the many measures to prevent guns possession. Over the past decades the common prison sentencing has not yielded much in the prevention of gun related crimes. The crimes continue to happen even with frequent arrests of the criminals due to their easy acquisition of firearms. The main idea is to stop the gun possession at inception in order to prevent gun related crimes in the nation. Hence, among the strategies to be used will be the use of gun control mechanism to prevent crime (Webster and Jon 34). During the 19th century, firearms violence contributed a big part in the civil disorders for example the Haymarket riots. During this period, the gun related homicide rates in the cities were much lower than in the current times. Between the periods of 1980 and 1990, homicides caused by the use of handguns during this period increased significantly while the usage of other weapons declined proportionately. The firearms homicides were mostly associated with the unemployed male persons who had low incomes. The majority of the offenders include the youths and the African American US citizens where the deaths and injuries numbers tripled in the black

Assess the extent to which we can uncover Essay Example for Free

Assess the extent to which we can uncover Essay Official crime statistics report crime levels have been reported to be steadily falling since 1995, although showing a slight increase in burglaries. These official statistics are released by the Home Office, and are collected from police records in the UK, these statistics are widely regarded to be a true and accurate measure of crime, despite evidence suggesting otherwise. Another way of recording crime is through self report studies, which although does give out some indication of crime levels, it is considered to be inaccurate due to the anonymity of those surveyed meaning there is a chance of exaggeration or lying. A more reliable source would perhaps be a victim survey such as the BCS, a large scale survey conducted in the UK, which enables victims to report crime. Criminologists have used these to try to decrease the amount of unknown or unrecorded crime. Yet again this gives those surveyed the cover of anonymity, which could result in exaggeration, underplaying the crime, or just lying. Not only is this but it is open to mistakes due to relying on the memories of its participants, which may mean the results are wrong. Also there is a problem in that victims are categorising the crimes themselves, and so it may exaggerate some forms of crime, making them out to be more or less serious. Studies found too that types of corporate crime tended to be ignored; due to there it is seen as ‘minor’ compared to assault for example. Sexual crimes also tend not to be reported; due to the stigma’s attached to them. Young people are too excluded from this survey, as only over 18’s participate, and so a large majority of the population is ignored, and this means that victims of on-going child abuse can’t report being a victim. This obviously is one explanation as to how these statistics cannot be relied on to be wholly reliable. One argument against official crime statistics is that they are a record of crime, which are recorded by police, rather than of crimes reported to police, minor crimes for example like petty theft or vandalism may not be thought of as serious enough to record and therefore would not be included in the report. Another type of crime which falls into this category is domestic violence; many of these crimes aren’t recorded, due to the fact that it is so difficult to point the finger of blame. This means that we do not see a true figure of crimes which the police are faced with, only the ones which they pursue further. This shows that it falls to the judgement of the police to choose what is deemed a ‘crime’ and what is to be followed up. It is also suggested that police will record more crimes at points of the year when they are not so busy, however at times that crimes rates are high, less ‘trivial’ crimes will be recorded, this is because it frees up officers for more ‘important’ duties, and saves the police force extra work on things they don’t see as worthwhile, furthermore officers will record crimes more, or more high profile crimes, if they are looking to boost their own career, they may record more `straightforward` crimes, so that they can solve more cases, and benefit from a promotion. Some crimes are recorded, but due to work loads of officers may later be removed from records and classified as ‘non-crimes’ in order to decrease heavy work schedules. A second problem with official crime statistics is that many crimes go unreported, particularly domestic violence and sexual abuse; this is due to the fact that the crimes are seen as `taboo` and carry labels of ‘shame’ and in some communities these issues are seen as the norm, in the past for example many people simply accepted domestic violence as a common part of marriage, and something that could be resolved by the couple themselves; an example of this would be the fact only recently has it been possible for a husband to be convicted of raping his wife. When the man is the victim of domestic violence too, or a child is being abused, the crimes often go unreported, due to the shame of telling, and fear of not being believed. Also minor crimes, in which the victim feels that it is not worth making a statement, they do not report it. Gang crimes often go unreported due to the fact that they tend to take the law into their own hands, rather than seek retribution from the state, they go out and seek it directly from the perpetrator themselves, often reciprocating with a similar act of violence, which they had previously been a victim of. This is because they see their method as more effective and brings with it a higher status than reporting the crime to the authorities does. Other reasons for not reporting the police include, being scared of the person who carried out the crime, a drug dealer beating up a drug addict who has not paid him would be an example of this, the crime may be reported to other authorities, like the council, medical boards etc. or it is thought that many people do not report crimes, due to anti-police feelings. It is a well known fact that only a very small percentage of rape cases actually make it to court, even smaller is chance of a conviction. It is for this reason that victims are often very reluctant to report the crime, as the process of giving evidence and standing up in court is highly stressful, and weighed against the fact that it is unlikely to secure a conviction; it may be altogether less painful to not report it.

The Abrasive Jet Machining Engineering Essay

The Abrasive Jet Machining Engineering Essay Abrasive Jet machining is a kind of blasting process and one of the most hopeful micro machining process for hard and brittle materials like glasses and ceramics. Metal is removed due to the erosion caused by impact of high speed abrasive jet. Abrasive Jet machine has precision X-Y axis rigidly mounted to the cutting table and it has programmable Z axis with nozzle assembly. According to the proper design calculations we can select different components of Abrasive Jet Machine. In this project, I develop the model using different CAD packages like AUTO CAD and SOLID WORKS. Moreover I also explain the effect of several AJM operating parameters like standoff distance, size and type of abrasives on metal removal rate of AJM. I explain how we can maximize the efficiency of AJM by controlling their parameters. In this model care has been taken that use less fabricated component rather than directly procuring them because sometimes we find less accuracy in fabricated component so performance of machine can be low. Introduction of Abrasive Jet Machining Material removal processes is a part of manufacturing process and it can be divided into two major groups. One is conventional machining processes and another is Non- conventional machining processes. Different types of Conventional machining processes are Milling, Shaping, Drilling, Slotting, Boring, etc. And the examples of Non Conventional Processes are Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), Electro-Discharge Machining (EDM), Laser Beam Machining (lBM), Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM) etc.. Abrasive jet machining also called, Abrasive Micro blasting, it is a material removing process and material is removed by a focused steam of abrasive particles carried by high pressure gas or air. A fine abrasive particle strikes on work surface through nozzle and the material is removed by erosion by the high velocity abrasive particle. AJM is used mainly to cut materials that are very sensitive to heat damage and thin section of hard materials that chip easily and it is also used to cut intricate shapes and holes which are more difficult to produce by other processes. Equipments of Abrasive Jet Machine C:UsersVishalDesktoppart01.jpg A layout of Abrasive Jet Machining is shown in fig. Abrasive particles are fed from the hoper into the mixing chamber. High pressure air or gas (such as Carbon Di-oxide or Nitrogen) used as carrier gas is supplied to the mixing chamber which containing abrasive powder and vibrating at 50 c/s. with the help of pressure regulator we can control the gas flow and pressure. The high pressure air/gas entrains the abrasive particles and this mixture comes out from small nozzle at high velocity. This stream of abrasive particles strikes on the surface of work-piece and cut the material. The abrasive stream is directed to the work piece locations by nozzle, which may be manually positioned or mounted in some designed fixture for automatic operation. For automatic operation, cam drives, tracer mechanism or pantographs used to automatically position either nozzle or work piece. Abrasive Jet Machining Mechanism: C:UsersVishalDesktopAjm set up 3d.jpg In this process kinetic energy of abrasive jet is strike on the surface of work piece then it converts into pressure energy. If pressure energy is more than the yield strength or tensile strength of work piece material then material gets cut. List of Components of AJM: Abrasive Delivery System ( Including Hopper) Pressure Regulator Air filter valve Mixer Nozzle Suitable arrangement to hold the work piece Elements of Abrasive Jet Machine There are three main elements of AJM: Nozzle Abrasive Carrier gas The above mentioned three elements of AJM influence: Material removal rate and accuracy of machining Nozzle wear rate Surface roughness Geometry of cut Variables in Abrasive Jet Machine The process can be easily controlled to vary the metal removal rate which Depends on following variables. Nozzle design ( mean Shape of nozzle such as circular, square) Distance between the nozzle and work piece Inclination to the work surface Type of abrasive Size and shape of abrasive Flow rate of abrasive Type of carrier gases Velocity of abrasive jet Work piece material Nozzle design: Nozzle must be resistant under different conditions like pressure and kinetic energy of jet and common materials used for nozzle are tungsten carbide and synthetic sapphire. Pressure losses at the end of nozzle should be low. Distance between nozzle and work piece: Standoff distance affect on material removal rate of AJM. Material removal rate is increase if we increase standoff distance up to certain limit and then fall gradually. Small standoff distance gives better penetration of abrasive particle into the work piece and large standoff distance might cause flaring. Successfully experiments show that effective standoff distance is 0.8mm. Types of abrasive: Aluminum oxide is preferable abrasive in majority of application and silicon carbide abrasive also use in certain cases. Abrasive size also prominent factor in AJM. Best results have been obtained with a abrasive size in the range of 10-50  µm. Abrasive Flow Rate: Maximum material removal rate is achieved with a flow rate at 8-18 g/m. Increase the flow rate above the normal range for a particular nozzle design results in lower stream velocity thus decrease the material removal rate. It is advisable to use acceptable flow rate to conserve abrasives and increase the nozzle life. Grain size: Abrasives with smaller grain size have high density which may cause chocking problem of nozzle. General grain size use in AJM is 10 µ to 50 µ. Fine grains are used for polishing and deburring. Coarse grain size cut faster and cut deeper also. Work piece material: Abrasive jet Machine is generally used for machining brittle material like ceramics and glass and effect of MRR is depends on hardness of material if hardness is high then MRR is low and vice versa. Advantages of Abrasive Jet Machine: Low capital cost Low power consumption Ability to cut intricate shapes in high hardness and toughness material Ability to cut fragile and heat sensitive material without damage because no heat generated and overall forces are low The part produced is free of burs It is flexible process from design point of view Tooling time is substantially reduced Both faces of work piece can be machined simultaneously. Disadvantages of Abrasive Jet Machine It is slow process since metal removal rate is very slow. Larger floor space is required Skilled operators are needed Sharp corner cannot be produced High manufacturing cost Material thickness that can be machined is limited Abrasive grains can stick into soft material so cleaning is required High wear rate of nozzle The process tends to pollute the environment Applications of Abrasive Jet Machine Removing flash and parting lines form the injection molding machine Deburring and polishing plastic components like nylon and Teflon Frosting interior surface of glass tubes Etching marking on glass cylinder High quality surface can be easily produced Glue, paints can be removed effectively form paintings. Different Components of Abrasive Jet Machining set up Abrasive Delivery System CNC Control System Pump Nozzle Different Motion System of Nozzle Catcher plate Abrasive Delivery System: Modern abrasive delivery feed system do not need a vibratory feeders and other metering valves. For smooth and precision cutting operation we need to have fixed and continuous abrasive flow rate. Now days we use orifice metering system metering system which is very reliable and extremely repeatable. During machining set up, once we measured the abrasive flow rate through orifice we can enter that value in control computer programmed and then no adjustment or further tuning of abrasive flow is ever be required. Bulk abrasive delivery system is mounted with the wheel and it is also easy to move and this kind of system is use compressed air to transport garnet from the bulk abrasive hopper to small hopper attached with the machine. Features: can hold approximately 550lbs abrasive Can be located 20 feet away from the Abrasive Jet machine. Height and Width are of following: 1320mm and 960mm Can handle minimum pressure 80 to 95 psi. How it works: Abrasive particles are stored into the hopper and abrasive container has one inlet and one outlet for air passage. The flow rate of abrasive is controlled by rotational speed of motor. Due to rotation of cam, abrasive container gets vibration. The abrasive particle is delivered by rotation of cam and motor arrangement. C:UsersVishalDesktophopper 3d.jpg C:UsersVishalDesktopAbarsive hopper.jpg Control System for Abrasive Water jet Machine: Most of abrasive water jet machine equipped with the CNC control system. G code programming is installed in CNC machine. But the limitations of the G code Controller is that feed rate is held at constant speed and feed rate varies only for some regions like curves and corners. Another limitation of G code controller is that is used for rigid cutting tools. Abrasive water jet machine is not a kind of rigid cutting tool. Every time change the feed rate for curves and corner results in uneven cut. So by considering various parameters like parameters of nozzle and intricate shape of part and variable thickness of the work piece and materials going to cut help to determine the feed rate so that operation can be done smoothly. For that we have to prepare the control algorithm which compute the desired feed rate based on the above parameters. By using G code we can convert this feed rate mechanism into a actual programming. This programming help to drive the servomotors and that controls the X Y motion and this way we can make part with more precision. Pump: Two type of pumps used in the Abrasive water jet system. One is Crankshaft pump which was used in old technology buy nowadays for high pressure cutting technology intensifier pump is used. In this hydraulic power pack system is a type of positive displacement pump. This system drives the intensifier. Hydraulic power pack system is controlled by microcomputers to set up the pressure etc†¦ Electric motor is used to drive the hydraulic pump and as the hydraulic fluid push the large cylinder which generate the high force on small cylinder and this small cylinder pressurize the water at the level which is proportional to the cross section area of larger cylinder to the small cylinder. Nozzle: High pressure water flows into the nozzle and cutting head of nozzle which comprise of an orifice and mixing chamber and an insert where water jet mixed with the abrasive and form an abrasive water jet. Various motion of the nozzle is controlled by motion system across the material. C:UsersVishalDesktopnozzle01.jpg How water jet Forms: Typical diameter of the nozzle is 6mm. High pressure water is then fed into the pipe which can carry the water at 400 Mpa and consisting of different joints without any leakage between them. When water passes through the orifice flow of water convert onto narrow jet and orifice diameter is usually about 0.2 to 0.4mm. When water enters into the cutting head section pressure head of water is converted into velocity head. Velocity of water can be expressed as Vw = 2Pw / Ï w. Where Pw is the pressure of water and Ï w is density of the water. The orifice usually made of sapphire and life of the orifice is about 100-150 hours. From orifice narrow water jet passes through the small section vacuum is created in mixing chamber and that pulls abrasive particles and air into the mixing chamber. Abrasive particles are feed through the different techniques like Vibratory bowl or Belt feeder. Mixing Chamber: Mixing tube is the section where abrasive particles mixed with the water jet. Focusing tube generally made of tungsten carbide because of its good abrasive resistance characteristics. Focusing tube has inner diameter typical about 0.8 to 1.6mm and length of 50 t0 80 mm. To get the maximum accuracy we have to replace the mixing tube frequently. We can replace it when tolerance goes below the acceptable level. Numerical modeling of Mixing process can be described as of follow: If we consider some energy losses at the water jet formation at the end of orifice then water jet velocity described as of following way: Vw = ÃŽ ¦ √ (2Pw/ Ï w) Where ÃŽ ¦ is Velocity coefficient of the orifice. Volume flow rate of water can be expressed as following: Qw = ÃŽ ¨ x Area of orifice x Vw = ÃŽ ¨ x à °Ã‚ Ã…“ «/4 do ² x ÃŽ ¦ √ (2Pw/ Ï w) = Cd x à °Ã‚ Ã…“ « /4 do ² x √ (2Pw/ Ï w) Where ÃŽ ¨ = co efficient of Vena Contracta Cd = Discharge co efficient of orifice. So total power of the water jet can be expressed by Pw = Qw x Pw = = Cd x à °Ã‚ Ã…“ « /4 do ² x √ (2Pw ³/ Ï w) Due to the loss occur in the mixing process both momentum and energy is not conserved. But assumed that no looses occur in momentum at initially. So ÃŽ £ (à ¡Ã‚ ¹Ã‚  x v) before = ÃŽ £ (à ¡Ã‚ ¹Ã‚  x v)After (à ¡Ã‚ ¹Ã‚ airvair + à ¡Ã‚ ¹Ã‚ wvw + à ¡Ã‚ ¹Ã‚ ava)before = ( à ¡Ã‚ ¹Ã‚ aivairr + à ¡Ã‚ ¹Ã‚ wvw + à ¡Ã‚ ¹Ã‚ ava)After As we know that air has very low density so momentum of air, before and after are neglected. Consider one more assumption and is that after mixing abrasive particle has same velocity of water and also neglect the momentum of abrasive then above equation can be expressed by à ¡Ã‚ ¹Ã‚ wvw = ( à ¡Ã‚ ¹Ã‚ w + à ¡Ã‚ ¹Ã‚ a) vaw So vaw = [(1/(1 + R) ] x vw Where R is the loading factor = à ¡Ã‚ ¹Ã‚ a/ à ¡Ã‚ ¹Ã‚ w During mixing process momentum losses occur due to the friction between the abrasive particle and inner wall of focusing tube and collision between the abrasive particle and water jet so for time being consider momentum losses and then equation is described by V aw = ÃŽ · x [(1/(1 + R) ] x vw Where ÃŽ · is the momentum loss factor. Motion System: Motion system can be designed in many ways according to the motion of nozzle around a work piece. This mechanism provides excellent operating conditions for the operator. C:UsersVishalDesktop3dTable 3Imagetable1.jpg Materials are loaded with the help of overhead crane or fork lift truck to the tank. This mechanism is useful for 5 axis tables and also provides pretty much space to the vertical tilted axis. This structure has restriction to the movement of nozzle that means movement of nozzle has limitation to twist and long distance between the table and work piece result in error due to the deflection of machine. In this type of mechanism, Nozzle is mounted to the Y axis carriage. C:UsersVishalDesktop3dTable 3Imagetable 2.jpg Y axis is moving beam and is mounted with the X axis. Back beam is supported at the two ends. This mechanism is suitable for very large machine. C:UsersVishalDesktop3dTable 3Imagetable 3.jpg In above mechanism, nozzle is very close to the plane of work piece which minimize static and dynamic errors while operation is going on. This system is not suitable for manually material loading and this provide material loading is equal to the access of the tank. Cost estimation ( Bill of material) Item Cost per single item No of items required Total cost Linear motion guide ways hsr30cm $385 3 $1155 Precision Ball screw $188 3 $564 Supporting Unit $144 3 $432 Frl unit air filter $48 1 $48 Diamond nozzle for long service life $900 1 $900 Abrasive hopper with 90lb capacity $132 1 $132 Other accessories $250 $250 Total $3481 Material Removal rate Mechanism and Modeling in Abrasive Jet Machining As we discussed earlier, material removal rate takes place in abrasive jet machining because of the erosion of the work material and erosion take place due to the high impact of jet velocity strikes on the work piece. Following assumption has been considered in mechanism of Material removal rate. Shapes of the abrasives are spherical and abrasive particles are rigid. Kinetic energy of the abrasive particles is fully used in removing material of the work piece. Erosion takes place in brittle material due to the brittle fracture and the volume of fracture is considered as hemispherical with the diameter which is equal to length of the indentation. C:UsersVishalDesktopGeometry.jpg C:UsersVishalDesktopPart2.jpg From the geometry of the erosion of material DE ² = DF ² + EF ² EF ² = r ² = DE ² DF ² r ² = (dg/2) ² (dg/2 H)  ² = -H ² + dg H ≅ dg H r = Volume of the erosion of material is equal to the volume of hemispherical crater and is given by: TB = 2/3 = 2/3 x (dg H) ^3/2 As we know kinetic energy equation is given by  ½ mv ² so the kinetic energy of Abrasive particle grit is given by K.Eg =  ½ mg V ² = /12 x dg Ï g V ² Where V = Velocity of Abrasive Particle Ï g = Density of Abrasive Grit dg = Diameter of Single Abrasive Grit mg = Mass of Abrasive Grit When Abrasive particle strikes on Work piece material, work piece will be subjected to maximum forces which cause the erosion of material which I indicated in figure by symbol H. Therefore work done is given by W =  ½ x F H Impact force F is give by F = Indentation Area x hardness of the material W =  ½ x r ² H S And Work done is equal to Kinetic energy because we assumed that kinetic energy is fully utilized for material removal so W = Kinetic energy K.E  ½ x r ² H = = /12 x dg Ï g V ² So H = (dg Ï g V ²)/ (6r ²S) = dg V (Ï g/6S) ^1/2 Now material removal rate of brittle material can be expressed as of following: MrrB = TB x No. of strikes by abrasive grits per second N = TB x (ma/ /6 dg Ï g) = (6TB ma/ dg Ï g ) Now Put the value of TB = 2/3 x (dg H) ^3/2 = [ 6 x (2/3 x (dg H) ^3/2) x ma] / ( dg Ï g ) = (4 ma Ï g) x (H/dg) ^3/2 As we know that H = dg V (Ï g/6S) ^1/2 So MrrB = (4ma/ Ï g) x (dgV/dg) ^3/2) x (Ï g/6H) ^3/4 = (4maV) ^3/2 / (6^3/4 x Ï g^1/4 x S ^3/4) = (maV^3/2) / (Ï g^1/4 x S^3/4) Fabrication and Assembly of Abrasive Jet Machine Nozzle: A standard length of cylindrical rod typically made of Tungsten Carbide or Synthetic Sapphire or MS was cut into the proper length based on the requirements by using power hack saw. By turning process in Lathe machine we can reduced the diameter of cylindrical rod and bring up to 15mm. On same lathe machine we can make tip by Taper turning process by tapering one end of cylindrical rod. Then make a blind hole of 20mm on planner face of rod by using 12mm drill bit in drilling machine. Due to the tool tip angel, a shape of 118 degree formed at the end of blind hole. To get the 1mm of Tip of nozzle, we can use the 0.74mm drill bit in Drilling process. Cam: Mild steel of 40mm diameter can be used as a raw material of Cam. Turning process is used to bring down the diameter up to 35mm. By using power hack saw we can get the required width (Approximate 25mm). Then both cut faces can be machined in Milling Machine. Through hole can be made by 16mm Drill Bit in Drilling Machine. Abrasive Container: Abrasive container usually made out of the hollow cylinder. On the both end of container two Cast Iron plates were welded. On the top plate, two iron pipes fitted through the holes. There are two pipes in a system, one is inlet which is longer and makes more agitation of abrasive particles and outlet pipe is shorter. Compressed air goes to the abrasive container through inlet pipe and mixed with the abrasive particles then mixture of Air and Abrasive forward to the nozzle to perform operation Vibrator Assembly: Angel section is welded with the base plate by welding process. Induction motor is placed on the angle section which is parallel to the base plate. Induction motor is tightening with the nut and bolt with base plate. Cam is fixed with motor shaft and Abrasive container is connected to the rod and it is freely to rotate around the rod. C:UsersVishalDesktopVribator.jpg Design data and Technical Specification of Various Components: X-Y Table X -Y table is prominent part of the abrasive water jet machine. Various fixturing arrangements have to be provided to hold the work piece while operation is running. The travel of X-Y table has been decided based on the application. Table consists of two parts. One is upper plate and another one is lower plate. Upper table travel in X direction and lower table travel in Y direction. Based the model of Omax 2626, table can travel 730mm x 660mm. Y Axis is responsible for movement of work piece in Y direction. Other components of X-Y are of following. Linear motion guide way Recalculating ball screw Supporting unit for ball screw Couplings Nuts and bolts Other components as required Linear motion guide way: General application of linear motion guide is for the linear motion. Based on the different parameters like travel length, floor space requirement, type of equipment being used, linear motion guide way is selected. With the help of different rollers which provide rolling elements between the rails and block we can get higher precision linear motion system. Frictional losses are reduced between the elements by restraint effects between the rails and block and it can withstand high load in any directions. Assembly of Linear motion Guide way Source: Hiwin linear motion guide way catalog_G99TE13-0809 C:UsersVishalDesktopl m guide way.JPG L M Guide way with Dimensions Structure of linear motion guide way: As shown in fig, each raw of balls have angle contact 45 degree. Retainer plate has facility to hold the recalculating ball screw which guide linear motion guide way in directions. End plate is attached with the linear motion blocks which allow the balls to circulate. Side seal is placed between the row of balls and grease nipple is attached with the end plate. Linear motion guide way can achieve precise motion by setting up the section height smaller as much as possible based on the requirements and also provide rigidity of the model. Compare to all others traditional slides, co efficient of friction of linear motion guide way is 1/50 th. Advantages of linear motion guide way: Provide high accuracy Insufficient lubrications in traditional slides give errors in accuracy and in linear motion guide way frictional contact is rolling contact so it has little wear and therefore it has long life. Due to small frictional resistance a small driving force required to move the load and hence it provides high speed of motion. Provide Equal loads capacity in all four direction Best advantage is the interchangeability of the parts. Ball Screw: Ball screw assembly for linear motion guide way consists of screw and nuts. Helical threads or grooves provided between nuts and screws and balls are rotate between them. Ball return system provides the way to return the balls again that means when ball reach at the end of the nut it return through the return pipe. Ball nuts in ball screw assembly determine the fatigue failure in the system and ratios of number of threads in ball nut to the number of threads on ball screw decide the wear out. By considering the table length, calculation of X axis and Y axis ball screw length is determined. For our table our X axis ball screw length should be 730mm + 200 mm (Breadth for upper table) + 100mm allowances for below cover so it should be 1030mm. For Y axis table it should be 660mm + 200mm + 100mm so it should be 960mm. Based on the ball screw length, rail length is determined and which is 50mm larger than ball screw length. C:UsersVishalDesktopball screw.JPG Ball screw Assembly Supporting Units: Ball screw supported bearing are designed with the high bearing stiffness compare to other conventional bearing. Two kinds of supports are available fixed end support unit and supported end support unit. In fixed end support unit can take all thrust by given work and in another support end support unit acts like usual bearing. Nut bracket is used to bolt the ball screw nut with the work load platform. Vertical motion Module: Vertical motion module comprise of all above components like L M guide way, Pipe holder , Ball screw assemble, supporting units, nozzle holder and nozzle etc. This assembly is used for adjustment of stand of distance between nozzle and work piece. C:UsersVishalDesktopVerticle motion module.jpg Fixture arrangement for work piece in Abrasive Jet Machine As abrasive jet machine is used for various kind of applications that also result in various fixture arrangement of work piece based on the application. So not only one application can use for the applications. Usually Abrasive jet machine requires less fixturing equipment to get start the operation so combination of different components can be used for particular kind of work. Fixture is used to locate the work piece correctly and for quick loading to reduce the machining cycle time. To prevent undesirable movement or rotation of work piece while the work piece is under the process. When work piece is under the processes, high pressure of water and abrasive strikes on the work piece so it can move in sideways or lift up those results in errors. Most of abrasive jets are used to make flat parts or add some features to the existing parts. So for all kind of flat parts 3 parameters has to considered and which are X position , Y- position and angle of rotation with respect to X-Y point. Figure shows the fixture arrangement of work piece for flat parts using square and clamps. As shown in figure parts are lying on the slats and clamping is provided to prevent the side motion of work piece because slats do not provide better support to the work piece. A square plate is bolted with the tank. As shown in fig. Screws which are close to the work piece is a clamping screws and which are far from the work piece for the square to adjust the different thickness of material. This system is used to prevent the rotating motion of slats. Comparison of Abrasive jet Machining process with other Processes: Abrasive Jet machine Vs Laser Beam Machining: Comparison with respect to the material can be cut: Abrasive water jet can cut varieties of material with good conditions compare to laser beam machining. For refractory materials, laser beam machining has poor applicability whereas abrasive water jet has good applicability for same materials. Capital cost and abrasive water jet set up is very low compare to Laser machining. There is no heat produce in Abrasive water jet marching so it minimize the thermal distortion of material also minimize the secondary operation because it provides continuous or uniform smooth surface with little burr on the surface. As the thickness of the work piece increase, higher precision can be obtained by abrasive jet machine with the same or higher tolerance than laser. Abrasive water jets are safer compare to laser machining and abrasive jet nozzle is very simple than laser however life of nozzle is about 100-150 hours of operation. However there are some disadvantages associated with the abrasive water jet process while compare with the laser machining like tool wear is very low and power consumption also very low in laser machining as abrasive water jet has little high compare to laser. Abrasive water jet machine or Abrasive jet machine Vs. EDM. EDM has low applicability for the material like super alloys whereas abrasive water jet machining has good applicability of the same materials. Abrasive water jet machining has facility to make piercing in the parts by itself while EDM process has required pre drilled hole. There is no heat affected zone so this process eliminates secondary operations. Good capabilities to make large parts with economical cost. Rapid software programming which is very simple and less set up with fixturing make this machine considerable to buyers. It can work better in any kind of materials like conductive or non conductive. If the thickness of work piece is less than the 25mm or 1 inch, abrasive jet machine works five to eight times faster than the EDM but less precise as well. Abrasive water jets Vs Plasma Material removal rate efficiency of plasma machining is very low compare to the abrasive water jet machining. Plasma machining is not preferable to refractory material while abrasive water jet machining applicable to wide range of materials. Abrasive water jet provides better edge finish than plasma machining process but plasma machining process is faster than the Abrasive water jet process. Abrasive water jet Vs. Milling Milling can be used for rapid production if set up is already done and fully programmed whereas abrasive jet machining has rapid programming feature and if operator is well trained than set up do not required for the part. Minimal burring problem, less scrap, environmentally friendly, no oil soaked chips are the reasons of abrasive jet machining which replacing milling process in machine shops.

Sport Psychology Essay -- Papers

Sport Psychology In earlier days sports psychology was mostly concerned with developing assessment methods that would identify those people with the potential to become serious superior athletes. Today the focus is on psychological training, exercises that strengthen the mental skills that will help athletic performances on the path to excellence. These skills include mental imagery and focus training. If an athlete is serious about becoming the best he or she can possibly be, the most essential ingredient is commitment to practice the right things. It takes incredible commitment to reach the top: a commitment to rest and train the body so it can perform under the most demanding conditions and a commitment to train the mind to focus totally on executing your best performance skills under the most stressful circumstances. (Tutko,T 1976 pg.5) To excel in a sport is a contest with yourself, to call upon the natural abilities within you own mind and body. Each person begins at a different location menta lly, physically and with respect to the support we are given. An athlete quest for personal excellence requires the most of what you have- whatever that may be. Mental Imagery "Your images lead your reality" One of the best practice fields for peak performance is the mind. Many athletes use mental imagery for quick rehearsal before an event: A diver, for instance, might perform a double somersault with a half twist one final time in his mind as he readies himself on the board. Mental imagery can also help people prepare for possible hazards. A squash player might run through a difficult back court return in his or her mind to rehearse the various options that might be necessary in case of a delayed reaction. Psychologists s... ...equence, from mind (mental imagery) to body, from target to performance. Each step eliminates nonessentials so that the single focus or vision can fully absorb the performer's awareness. (Barrington.J,1987.61.53) Developing an ability to directly focus on critical performance cues and hold it there until the body is free to follow the visions of the mind is crucial to high level performance. The principles of sport psychology are helping athletes succeed far beyond just body strength but past their mind barriers. An achievement that can only be attained with dedication and a will to let your mind explore the all possibilities no matter how extravagant. Thanks to the extensive coverage of psychological training, the sports enthusiast can understand the need for an benefits of sport psychology. Bibliography: Tutko,T 1976 Barrington, J.1987

Captains of Industry :: essays research papers

In 1796, president George Washigton wrote a farewell address to speak to the nation before he retired. In this, he explained valid reasons to keep America an isolated as well as neutral country. It is clearly prominent that Washington's farewell adress was necessary. This is due to the fact that it gave the nation something to ponder as well as dwell upon. Washington's intent was for his adress was to serve as an itenerary for the future of our nation. This did not succeed. Although it would be reasonable to be used today, we continue to remain allies with some countries, and enemies with others. Washington's address analyzed the nation's domestic difficulties. He stated that, "...anthipathies against particular nations and passionate attachments for others should be excluded, and that, in place of them, just and amicable feelings toward one another should be cultivated." In this, he expressed his desire for neutrality in the nation. Another main point that explains the necessity of the address was to cement the fact that we should stay out of other country's affairs; that we should be our own independant nation. Washington did not want America to take sides, because at that time, America was stilll forming as its own country and he believed that we should concentrate on our country. If America is to be an independant country, why should we have affairs with other countries? For example, Europe. Washington strongly felt that we should break ties and establish none with other foreign contries and that we should not, at any circumstance, interfere with European affairs. In his reasoning, he expressed his desire for isolation in the nation. Being a strong figure that many looked upon, Washington's intent for his policy of isolation and neutrality was to serve as a prescription for future years. By using VALID reasoning combined with hope for his nation, Washington denounced the idea of favorites and enemies in order to for our nation to be "a free, enlightened, and, at no distant period, a great nation to give mankind the maganimous and too novel example of a people always guided by exhalted justice and benevolence..." His speech was also addressed at the end of term, in order to serve as a basis for the future of our country to follow. Despite this GRATUITUS attempt, his address did not succeed in being the precedent it was designed to.

Essay --

The Economy, Monetary Policy, and Monopolies Alesia E. Davis Strayer University Eco-100 Dr. Shadrack Koros December 6, 2013 Analyze the current economic situation in the U.S. as compared to five (5) years ago. Include interest rates, inflation, and unemployment in your analysis. According to an article in the Wall Street Journal posted on the 6th of December 2013, employers in the United States have continued to increase jobs at a fixed pace and the unemployment rate fell in November, a sign of stronger economic growth that may intensify debate within the Federal Reserve about reducing central bank bond purchases as early as this month. (Wall Street Journal, 2013) U.S. payrolls rose by 203,000 last month, the Labor Department said Friday. The unemployment rate dropped three-tenths of a percentage point to 7.0%, the lowest level in five years. (Wall Street Journal, 2013) Economists surveyed by Dow Jones Newswires had forecast nonfarm payrolls would rise by 180,000 and the unemployment rate would tick down to 7.2%. Payroll numbers in September and October were reviewed up by a combined 8,000. Friday's report may strengthen expectations that the Fed will soon slow the pace of its $85 billion a month in bond purchases. At their October meeting, officials were looking to end the program "in coming months." The Fed's program, started in September 2012, is designed to keep long-term interest rates low, boost investment and spur hiring. (Wall Street Journal, 2013, New York Times, 2013) In October of 2013, the US inflation rate eased for the third straight month to 1 percent, the lowest rate since October of 2009. Primarily due to a drop in gasoline prices in September, the price dropped to ... ...t possible competitors from entering the market. (O'Sullivan, A., Sheffrin, S., & Perez, S. (2012)) â€Æ' The Wall Street Journal - Breaking News, Business, Financial and Economic News, World News & Video - Wall Street Journal - Wsj.com. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://wsj.com The New York Times - Breaking News, World News & Multimedia. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://NYT.com Interest rates: The big freeze - Jan. 22, 2013. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://money.cnn.com/2013/01/01/news/economy/interest-rates.moneymag/ O'Sullivan, A., Sheffrin, S., & Perez, S. (2012). Survey of economics: Principles, applications, and tools (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson-Prentice Hall. Job Creation. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://useconomy.about.com/od/Employment/tp/Job-Creation.htm The Bell System| History| AT&T. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.corp.att.com/history/history3.html

Electronic Contracts Essay

There are several long-term impact of electronic contracting on the nation’s business and some of these are the following: First of all, since the E-sign Federal Law â€Å"legitimizes business conducted by electronic means†, this means that the nation will produce more businesses than usual (Zanger, 2000, n. p. ). This is because an electronic contract saves a considerable amount of time, as well as, effort (Zanger, 2000, n. p. ). Unlike in the traditional way, wherein individuals entering into a contract are obliged to meet with each other, negotiate with each other, agree with each other, etc before finally signing a document that legitimizes what they have discussed about with regards to business (Zanger, 2000, n. p. ). In electronic contract, a document is sent for another party to read and agree upon, if he or she does then he or she signs it, then the other party, in case he or she agrees will also sign it (Zanger, 2000, n. p. ). Electronic contract is exceedingly easy and extremely convenient that is why the number of businesses is increased greatly which leads to a flourishing economy for the nation as well (Zanger, 2000, n. p. ). Second, the e-Sign Federal Law â€Å"continues the advancement of e-commerce†, which in turn, also plays a large role in the economy of the whole nation (Zanger, 2000, n. p. ). It motivates individuals to transact their businesses online and make their services far more efficient by doing so (Zanger, 2000, n. p. ). The fast and efficient service that e-commerce offers contribute largely in inspiring people to create a business of their own online which will not only bring in an additional income for themselves and their families but to the government as well (Zanger, 2000, n. p. ). Finally, â€Å"it establishes uniformity in intrastate, interstate, & foreign commerce† which means that the hindrances and vagueness to well-organized/competent interstate â€Å"online transactions posed by different states’ laws† will be gone forever (Zanger, 2000, n. p. ). This means that the flow of business transactions will be freely flowing because there will be no more differences in State laws to attend to (Zanger, 2000, n. p. ). In case that other States have other laws with regards to e-commerce and electronic contracts, these will still be covered by this federal law technically referred to as â€Å"the Federal E-sign Law† (Zanger, 2000, n. p. ). Since uniformity is established through the aforementioned law, more individuals are more confident now with online transactions than before (Zanger, 2000, n. . ). What are the potential pitfalls you see with electronic contracting? An electronic contract entails an â€Å"electronic signature†, which is actually an â€Å"electronic sound, symbol, or process attached to or logically associated with an electronic record and executed or adopted by a person with the intent to sign the electronic record† (California Codes Civil Code Section 1633. 1 – 1633. 17, n. d. ). The major problem here is that there are no rules or standards for electronic signatures (California Codes Civil Code Section 1633. – 1633. 17, n. d. ). There should be only one kind of technology utilized for â€Å"an electronic signature to meet the functional equivalence standard because there are no built-in security of handwritten signatures, in ink, and tangible writing† (California Codes Civil Code Section 1633. 1 – 1633. 17, n. d. ). There should be â€Å"encryptions, access controls, as well as, date stamps† in order for it not to be easily tampered with (California Codes Civil Code Section 1633. 1 – 1633. 17, n. d. ). If there are no guiding principles on what comprises electronic signatures then fraud is most likely to occur (California Codes Civil Code Section 1633. 1 – 1633. 17, n. d. ). Anybody can just sign an agreement however she/he wants it to be signed and he or she may just opt to get out of it by saying it not his or her electronic signature or he or she may just put another electronic signature that is not really associated with him or her for the purpose of being able to run away with it in case he or she needs to (California Codes Civil Code Section 1633. 1 – 1633. 17, n. d. ).

Ethics †morality Essay

When asking people â€Å"what does ethics mean? † we get many different replies. Some relate ethics to feelings, others relate it to religion, others might relate it to the law, others relate it to society and some just do not know. They are all wrong. Ethics refers to well-founded standards of right and wrong. Feelings, religion and the law may misguide people from what is ethical. The majority of people misunderstand what being ethical means. Some think that being ethical means following the law. The law often incorporates ethical standards to which most citizens subscribe. But laws, like feelings, can deviate from what is ethical. Our own pre-Civil War slavery laws and the old apartheid laws of present-day South Africa are grotesquely obvious examples of laws that deviate from what is ethical. Adela Cortina (March, 2000) said, â€Å"A natural law standpoint which, whether in its traditional or ‘post traditional’ version, ultimately takes only what is just from a certain moral conception as ‘valid law’, is not an acceptable basis for legal legislation in a morally pluralist society. † Nor should one identify ethics with religion. Most religions, of course, advocate high ethical standards. Yet if ethics were confined to religion, then ethics would apply only to religious people. But ethics applies as much to the behavior of the atheist as to that of the devout religious person. Religion can set high ethical standards and can provide intense motivations for ethical behavior. Ethics, however, cannot be confined to religion nor is it the same as religion. Praveen Parboteeah, Martin Hoegl and John B. Cullen (June, 2008) mention â€Å"some studies have found no difference between religious and non religious individuals on unethical behaviors such as dishonesty and cheating. Many people tend to equate ethics with their feelings, but being ethical is clearly not a matter of following one’s feelings. A person following his or her feelings may recoil from doing what is right. Feelings frequently deviate from what is ethical. Just like Ken Bowen (August, 1994) said, â€Å"With a set of rules guilt is all too often a conflict between what is said to be wrong and what one feels to be right and can be devastating to an individuals personality. † What, then, is ethics? Ethics is two things. First, ethics refers to well-founded standards of right and wrong that prescribe what humans ought to do, usually in terms of rights, obligations, benefits to society, fairness, or specific virtues. Ethics, for example, refers to those standards that impose the reasonable obligations to refrain from rape, stealing, murder, assault, slander, and fraud. Ethical standards also include those that enjoin virtues of honesty, compassion, and loyalty. And, ethical standards include standards relating to rights, such as the right to life, the right to freedom from injury, and the right to privacy. Such standards are adequate standards of ethics because they are supported by consistent and well-founded reasons. Secondly, ethics refers to the study and development of one’s ethical standards. As mentioned above, feelings, laws, and social norms can deviate from what is ethical. So it is necessary to constantly examine one’s standards to ensure that they are reasonable and well-founded. Ethics also means, then, the continuous effort of studying our own moral beliefs and our moral conduct, and striving to ensure that we, and the institutions we help to shape, live up to standards that are reasonable and solidly-based. Most people do not really know what the meaning of ethics is. They all have a different idea of it. They relate it to things like religion, law and feelings. Well these usually deviate us from what is right and wrong. That is not all there is to ethics. Ethics has to do with standards of right and wrong. They may change through time. One must always examine one’s standards.

Ethical Issue in Public Health Essay

1. Ethical Leadership in the Hospital Business Due to the critical relevance of the healthcare service for the society, it is important for the organizations and institutions involved in this field to develop their operational system, administrative approaches, and patient care strategies to address effectively and efficiently the healthcare service needs of the community. Important in these institutions is the organizational aspect of their operation wherein the role of leadership becomes a critical material as this manifest as the key element in the ethical nature of their group. Indeed, leadership is important in the hospital institution as this serve as the focal point of the ethical nature and ideal identity of their organization. The leadership characteristics each hospital institution respectively defines their service and their ethical nature. Significantly, the leadership character needed in healthcare institutions is mainly based on their classification organized based on their facilities, potential, and ability to extend particular healthcare service. In relation to their classification, it is important for the organization to develop leadership principles and ethical values towards their purpose of providing healthcare service. In this aspect, the leadership characteristics of each hospital must be towards achieving success in the ethical purpose of their organization, maximizing their potential for effective service, and extending their services in their community. These elements must be fully integrated and must be effectively manifested by the leaders of the hospital organization for them to be able to influence and direct their institution towards the achievement of these missions. Developing the approach in the leadership system of a healthcare organization is often considered as a critical matter particularly the approach that will be taken by the leaders in influencing the entire organization. In motivating the personnel of the hospital towards their ethical agenda, it is important for the leaders to affect the views and ideology of its people through personally manifesting the values they wish to promote. An approach particular to this is â€Å"servant leadership† in which the leaders manifest the values of humility and humbleness in their actions thus, enabling them to lead their group through examples. In general, this approach is mainly means being the values that they wish to promote whereas through perception, the organization will be motivated to follow their leader’s example. Indeed, through applying this leadership strategy in uplifting the ethical values of the hospital organization, the institutions can become effective healthcare service medium addressing the need of the people for better health and better life. The ethical system by which hospital leadership is based actually outlines the needed level of relationship that doctors and other health staff should have with the patients that they are attending to. The level of involvement that they are allowed to have with their patients is usually broken down through the different ethical principles that the said industry applies in the system. 2. Contemporary Neuroscience and the Notion of Freedom The aspect of neuroscience primarily relates to the determination and the analysis of behavioral development of the human being based on the physiological and biological nature of the brain in the human body. In this field, scientists try to explain and understand how human behavior and its characteristics are developed from the complex development of the brain structure from its basic origin of single-celled to the complex formation of the human body. During the past, this field has been limited by numerous hindrances namely the boundaries in the current technological capacity. However, in the present, recent technological advancement with the numerous studies and efforts in this field brought about new discoveries and advances in the scientific field of neuroscience. Among the recent advances in this field formulation of the procedural approach in researching brain characteristics and activities in its fundamental structure wherein scientists are not able to explore the relationship and possibilities in genetic influence with the behavioral development. With the experimentation procedures in animals and the technological advances that allow molecular reconfiguration, neuroscientists are now able to explore the influence of genetic altercation with neurological and behavioral characteristics. In application, this recent advancement paved the way for greater possibilities wherein scientist hope on curing neurological problems and detrimental behavioral problems and retardation during the initial development of the brain. With more research, scientist can learn how to determine and stop possible brain and psychological problems during the fetal development of the human body thus negating its unfortunate consequences in the future. With this possibility, the choice of living a healthy physiological and psychological life can be made possible and available for the every human being, which will be significantly assured even during his or her fetal development. In addition, positive traits and characteristics can be enhanced in each generation influencing the development of the society for the better towards the future. Ethical matters in this part of the medical aspect of development involves the consideration that practitioners place on the capabilities of the patient to decide for their own medications or the process of healing that they are likely to accept in such serious cases of neuro-medication.

Constructing On Constructivism The Role Of Technology Education Essay

AbstractionA complementary relationship exists between engineering and constructivism, the execution of each one profiting the other. Constructivism is a philosophy saying that larning takes topographic point in contexts, while engineering refers to the designs and environments that engage scholars. Recent efforts to incorporate engineering in the schoolroom have been within the context of a constructivist model ( e.g. , Richards, 1998 ) . The intent of this paper is to analyze the interrelatedness between constructivism and engineering as revealed by empirical research. The instances include a assortment of surveies in a assortment of scenes – instructor instruction, on-line acquisition, and K-12 instruction ; constructivist schemes include collaborative and concerted acquisition methods, prosecuting in critical and brooding thought, rating through electronic portfolios, and a critical expression at emerging instructor functions within constructivist paradigms. Success has be en reported in the development of constructivist class faculties utilizing engineering as cognitive tools, profiting both pupils and module. However, many instructors do non utilize constructivist patterns, and those who do are non wise in their choice of engineering usage ( Rakes, Flowers, Casey, & A ; Santana, 1999 ) . Technology needs to be viewed in a 3-dimensional position: semiotic, epistemological, and matter-of-fact, enabling the â€Å" building of cognition † by scholars through a procedure of socialization.Introductionâ€Å" Once cognizing is no longer understood as the hunt for an iconic representation of ontological world, but, alternatively, as a hunt for suiting ways of behaving and thought, the traditional job disappears. Knowledge can now be seen as something that the being builds up in the effort to order the as such formless flow of experienceaˆÂ ¦ † von Glasersfeld ( 1984, p. 39 ) The usage of computing machine engineering to back up acquisition has been hard to document and quantify ( Clark, 1994 ; Russell, 1999 ) , go forthing the function of computing machines in the schoolroom unstable. In the past decennary, a sudden revival of involvement was markedly observed in the schoolroom usage of technological inventions, along with the increased usage of the Internet and other digital engineerings ( Reiser, 2002 ) . The field of Instructional Design and Technology, excessively, saw the development and outgrowth of alternate attacks, such as cognitive and constructivist theories, that deviated aggressively from traditional patterns, such as behavioural theoretical accounts. New accents, like electronic public presentation support systems, web-based direction, and knowledge direction systems, non merely agitate the cognition base of the field, but besides widened its skyline across concern and industry, the military, wellness attention and instruction, worldwide ( Reiser, 2002 ) . Enterprises, such as located larning theory and constructivism presented fresh attacks to convey about reforms in the spheres of public instruction and higher instruction ( Anderson, Reder & A ; Simon, 1996 ; Brown, Collins & A ; Duguid, 1989 ; Jonassen, 1999 ; Reiser, 2002 ) . To understand the potency of engineering execution in heightening the teaching-learning procedure, the impact of constructivism on schoolroom patterns has been studied by many research workers ( e.g. , Black & A ; McClintock, 1995 ; Richards, 1998 ; Brush & A ; Saye, 2000 ) . Other research workers have suggested that constructivist schemes exploit engineerings for greatest impact in larning ( e.g. , Duffy & A ; Cunningham, 1996 ) . A complementary relationship appears to be between computing machine engineerings and constructivism, the execution of each one profiting the other. Constructivism, derived chiefly from the plants of Piaget ( 1970 ) , Bruner ( 1962, 1979 ) , Vygotsky ( 1962, 1978 ) , and Papert ( 1980, 1983 ) , is both a philosophical and psychological attack based on societal cognitivism that assumes that individuals, behaviours and environments interact in mutual manner ( Schunk, 2000 ) . Constructivism is a philosophy saying that larning takes topographic point in contexts, and that scholars form or construct much of what they learn and understand as a map of their experiences in state of affairs ( Schunk, 2000 ) . More late, research workers ( e.g. , Lave, 1990 ; Saxe, Guberman & A ; Gearheart, 1987 ) have presented more qualitative certification of larning in context. Technology, harmonizing to Jonassen, Peck, and Wilson ( 1999 ) refers to â€Å" the designs and environments that engage scholars † ( p. 12 ) . The focal point of both constructivism and engineering are so on the creative activity of larning environments. Likewise, Hannfin and Hill ( 2002 ) depict these larning environments as contexts: in which knowledge-building tools ( affordances ) and the agencies to make and pull strings artefacts of understanding are provided, non one in which constructs are explicitly taughtaˆÂ ¦ a topographic point where scholars work together and back up each other as they use a assortment of tools and larning resources in their chase of larning ends and problem-solving activities ( p.77 ) . The intent of this paper is to reexamine the research on the integrating of engineering in the schoolroom, foregrounding the connexion between constructivism and engineering. The focal point is on the constructivist position of larning as an active procedure of building instead than geting cognition, and direction as a procedure that supports building instead than pass oning cognition. The reappraisal is followed by a series of instance surveies, stressing constructivism and engineering ‘s relationship. Finally, deductions for instructors and instructor pedagogues are presented.Review of Related LiteratureIn order to understand larning within a constructivist model, as an activity in context, the whole acquisition environment must be examined. However, the broad diverseness of constructivist positions makes the task really complex and beyond the range of this paper. These positions normally emphasize the function of the instructor, the pupil, and the cultural embeddedness of ac quisition ( see for example, Duffy & A ; Cunningham, 1996 ; Honebein, Duffy, & A ; Fishman, 1993 ; Simons, 1993 ) . Using these commonalties as guidelines, this reappraisal outlines the relationship of constructivism with engineering by looking at ( a ) engineering as cognitive tools, ( B ) constructive position of the thought procedure, and ( degree Celsius ) the function of the instructor in engineering enhanced environments. Technology as Cognitive Tools A cardinal premise of constructivism is that larning is mediated by tools and marks ( Duffy & A ; Cunningham, 1996 ; Ezell & A ; O'Keeffe, 1994 ) . â€Å" Culture creates the tool, but the tool changes the civilization. Participants in the civilization appropriate these tools from their civilization to run into their ends, and thereby transform their engagement in the civilization † ( Duffy & A ; Cunningham, 1996, p. 180 ) . The computing machine is an example of mediational agencies that has facets of both tool and mark. The computing machine ‘s function in instruction has been mostly viewed as an instructional tool and for supplying a richer and more exciting acquisition environment ( Duffy & A ; Cunningham, 1996 ; Jonassen & A ; Reeves, 1996 ; Taylor, 1980 ) . However, by concentrating on the scholar, the function of engineering can back up new apprehensions and capablenesss, therefore, offering a cognitive tool to back up cognitive and metacognitive procedures. For i llustration, an electronic exchange plan between pupils of a category in the U.S. with a similar schoolroom in Northern Ireland shared multiple cultural positions through images, narratives, letters and multimedia plans ( Duffy & A ; Cunningham, 1996 ) . The experience was enriching, increasing their apprehension. Further, clear uping the function of engineering in acquisition, Duffy and Cunningham ( 1996 ) province: Technology is seen as an built-in portion of the cognitive activityaˆÂ ¦.This position of distributed knowledge significantly impacts how we think of the function of engineering in instruction and preparation, the focal point is non on the person in isolation and what he or she knows, but on the activity in the environment. It is the activity – focused and contextualized- that is cardinal†¦ The procedure of building is directed towards making a universe that makes sense to us, that is equal for our mundane operation ( pp. 187-188 ) . Therefore, the undertaking of the scholar is seen as dynamic, and the computing machine makes available new larning chances. The position of engineering as cognitive tools is besides shared by other research workers ( e.g. , Jonassen, 1994 ; Jonassen & A ; Reeves, 1996 ; Lajoie, 2000 ) . The traditional position of instructional engineerings of direction as conveyers of information and communicators of cognition is supplanted with active function the scholar plays in larning with engineering. Technologies, chiefly computing machines, help construct cognition bases, which will â€Å" prosecute the scholars more and ensue in more meaningful and movable knowledgeaˆÂ ¦ Learners map as interior decorators utilizing the engineering as tools for analysing the universe, accessing information, interpretation and forming their personal cognition, and stand foring what they know to others † ( Jonassen, 1994, p. 2 ) . Technological tools such as spreadsheets, databases, adept systems, picture conferencing and others can be used by pupils to analyse capable affair, develop representative mental theoretical accounts, and so transcribe them into cognition bases ( Jonassen, 1994 ; Jonassen & A ; Carr, 2000 ; Jonassen & A ; Reeves, 1996 ) . An illustration is the development of fake microworlds and games by kids utilizing Logo scheduling. Logo scheduling has evolved since the early text-based medium conceived by Seymour Papert and his squad at MIT in the 1970 ‘s, to a well easy, digitized format. Kafai, Ching, and Marshall ( 1997 ) gave an introductory preparation plan to fifth and sixth grade pupils one hebdomad before the design undertakings. The Logo version included support for modern computing machine characteristics like multimedia, sprite life, sounds, films, and pigment tools. Harmonizing to Kafai and her co-workers ( 1997 ) , the multimedia package proved to be a good context for pupils to larn through coaction and undertaking direction. The interaction between squad members, the flow of thoughts and loud thought encouraged the kids to experiment and happen alternate ways for planing and work outing jobs. For illustration, the pupils worked on different characters separately, but so worked together to inc orporate all the characters, and in debugging ( Kafai et al. , 1997 ) . Cognitive tools do non prevent the usage of computing machines to increase productiveness for larning. Off-loading insistent undertakings and lower order undertakings to cognitive tools frees cognitive resources for deeper thought ( Duffy & A ; Cunningham, 1996 ; Jonassen, 1999 ) and reduces mistakes. Harmonizing to Swain and Pearson ( 2001 ) , instructors and pupils must be educated to utilize the computing machine as a productiveness tool, every bit good as a tool for acquisition, research, networking, coaction, telecommunications, and problem-solving. Using computing machines as a productiveness tool is one of the six National Educational Technological Standards ( NETS ) ( hypertext transfer protocol: //cnets.iste.org/ ) for instructors which states that instructors will â€Å" utilize engineering to heighten their productiveness and professional patterns † ( Morrison, Lowther, & A ; DeMeulle, 1999 ) . Constructive position of â€Å" Thinking † The procedure of thought in constructivist paradigms requires higher-order accomplishments, diging deeper and harder into content and context ( Black & A ; McClintock, 1995 ; Jonassen, n.d. ; Manzo, 1998 ; Swain & A ; Pearson, 2001 ) . Traditional schooling, harmonizing to Manzo ( 1998 ) , really discourages constructive believing with ends of conveying bing cognition that conflicts with any existent effort to bring forth new apprehension. â€Å" Constructivist thought combines both the critical and originative rational procedures. It can be practiced by promoting critical analysis in activities. Schools, instructors and pupils can be conditioned to swerve away from traditional schooling regimen to promote constructive thought † ( Manzo, 1998, p. 287 ) . Cognitive tools, along with constructivist larning environments, usher and activate cognitive acquisition schemes and critical thought ( Jonassen, 1994 ) . Cognitive tools help in cognition building and non knowledge reproduct ion. The cognition constructed by the scholars reflects their comprehension and construct of the information. To exemplify, when pupils build cognition bases with databases, they need to analyse the content sphere and engage in critical thought. Black and McClintok ( 1999 ) emphasis the importance of reading as being cardinal to knowledge and acquisition. Their design of Study Supported Environments ( SSEs ) based on constructivist design rules called Interpretation Construction Design ( ICON ) focused chiefly on the interpretative building of reliable artefacts in the context of rich background stuffs, and crossing across different Fieldss of survey. Their survey showed that in add-on to larning specific content, pupils were able to get generalizable reading and debate accomplishments. For illustration, in learning 6th grade antediluvian history, a plan called Archaeotype A © was used that presented pupils with a in writing simulation of an archeological site. Students who worked collaboratively in groups, had to delve up artefacts through simulation, observe and mensurate them in fake research labs, and eventually through a procedure of reading and debate, arrived at the apprehension of general rules behind what they were making. In a follow-up rating survey, it was found that there were important additions in the interpretive and debate accomplishments of pupils who had participated in the survey against a control group ( Black & A ; McClintock, 1999 ) . Brooding thought, that requires careful deliberation, is besides encouraged by constructivists ( e.g. , Kafai et al. , 1997 ; Swain & A ; Pearson, 2001 ; Walker, 2000 ) . Metacognition, or the self-monitoring and self-denial of the acquisition procedure, is emphasized. New cognition which is composed is added to old representations, modifying them in the procedure. This normally requires external staging in the signifier of people, books, or engineerings such as computing machines. Swain and Pearson ( 2001 ) recommend the pattern of brooding thought by instructors to measure their engineering usage. They stress the importance of certification of brooding ideas to find the extent and quality of personal versus instructional utilizations of engineering, organisation and execution of environments and activities. Jonassen ( 1994 ) describes technological tools as â€Å" rational spouses † and â€Å" powerful accelerators † in the procedure of acquisition, â€Å" scaffoldin g the all important procedures of articulation and contemplation, which are the foundations of cognition building † ( p. 5 ) . The Role of the Teacher in Technology Enhanced Environments The function of the instructor as a facilitator is seen as most of import in a constructivist context ( Witfelt, 2000 ; Richards, 1998 ) . Within a constructivist schoolroom, the instructor engenders societal and rational climes, where collaborative and concerted acquisition methods are supported. In parallel, technology-enhanced schoolrooms tap constructivist schemes ( Jonassen, 1999 ) , set uping problem-based undertakings where pupils actively construct cognition, associating knew cognition with old cognition. In non-traditional schoolrooms such as the open/global schoolroom ( Walker, 2000 ; Witfelt, 2000 ) , the function and duties of the instructor have changed. The instructor, as an agent, has to invariably update information and engineering for doing learning reliable and relevant. For illustration, while developing a class faculty for instructors and taxonomy for instructor competences in the usage of educational multimedia, Witfelt ( 2000 ) observed that it was of import to unite several theories such as constructivism, postmodernism, situated intelligence and multiple intelligences. However, the theoretical model would be constructivist in nature with the instructor presuming the function of the facilitator, supplying an environment for self-generated research, understanding the societal and collaborative nature of acquisition, assisting kids concept cognition and initiate problem-based, project-oriented work. With this passage in functions and duties, Witfelt ( 2000 ) listed new in structor competences in constructivist contexts that include supervisor makings, protagonist and facilitator of pupils ‘ work, adviser and subject-matter expert, galvanizer and encourager, supreme authority at group treatments, critic in mobilising greater attempt when aims are non being met, and judge to better general larning capacities of pupils.Case StudiesAfter analyzing the literature on engineering integrating and constructivist rules, a complementary relationship between engineering and acquisition within a constructivist model seems sound and advantageous to instructors and scholars. To exemplify these rules discretely, model instances are presented that reflect the doctrine established above. Teacher-trainees at Winthrop University in South Carolina undertook a meaningful technology-based activity to carry through literacy ends ( Richards, 1998 ) . They developed an electronic portfolio around a literacy-related subject, including informations, contemplations and critical responses, which they shared with their equals and other pedagogues. The extract of engineering was helped by implementing constructivist-based activities, such as coaction and cooperation in a group, prosecuting in job resolution and building possible solutions to social quandary, and pass oning the deeper processing of content and the critical development of literacy accomplishments and schemes ( Richards, 1998 ) . Student perceptual experiences were determined through formative and summational appraisal methods. Students responded positively toward achievement of concerted and collaborative acquisition, the engineering constituent maps and the relevancy of the activities to future callings in schools. However, they recommended that more clip be provided for treating thoughts and synthesising them in the portfolio. Research conducted at the Open University, U.K. besides demonstrated a positive relationship between constructivism and engineering integrating ( Walker, 2000 ) . A distance-learning class was developed maintaining in head the experiential and constructivist positions of larning. The intent was to assist pupils in a distance-learning class learn in better and more effectual ways, to be active scholars, building their ain apprehension. Assignments and appraisals were besides oriented towards constructivist ends. Their attempts culminated in a new paradigm of class development. A study of all the pupils who completed the class and took the scrutiny revealed that the bulk felt that they had improved their acquisition accomplishments to a considerable extent. A follow-up study was undertaken the undermentioned twelvemonth. These findings revealed a high proportion of positive responses to inquiries sing the continued usage of contemplation to better assignments, based on teachers ‘ feedback and rating standards. However, pupils were less positive about their usage of contemplation in general. These pupils like those described above ( Richards, 1998 ) struggled with maintaining and utilizing contemplation efficaciously. Students were non the lone donees of the mixture of constructivist schemes with engineering tools. Harmonizing to Richards ( 1998 ) and Walker ( 2000 ) , the development of class faculties based on constructivist patterns and the integrating of engineering were besides good to the module, as they had to be after and revise to incorporate engineering so that pupils could be helped to go more capable and mature scholars.Deductions for PracticeThese instances have important deductions for instructor pedagogues and instructors. In the country of instructor instruction, Kim and Sharp ( 2000 ) observed that the planning of instructors consistent with constructivist patterns was extremely variable with most preservice instructors cognizing really small about the effectual integrating of engineering in instruction. Since instructors tend to learn as they were taught, it is indispensable that both preservice and inservice instructors must be exposed to constructivist-based direction, which wo uld so ease the development of learning schemes consistent with recent reform motions ( Kim & A ; Sharp, 2000 ) . An exposure to constructivist learning methods and coincident multimedia acquisition experiences influenced the planning of constructivist behaviours and extract of engineering ( Kim & A ; Sharp, 2000 ) . Technology may besides act upon teacher pattern to integrate constructivist rules. Rakes, Flowers, Casey and Santana ( 1999 ) study that as the sum of engineering available, the degree of engineering accomplishments of the instructors, and the usage of engineering increased, the usage of constructivist schemes in the schoolroom besides appeared to increase. â€Å" Technology can supply the vehicle for carry throughing constructivist instruction patterns † ( Rakes et al. , 1999, p. 3 ) . So, increasing the accomplishment degrees of instructors with respect to computing machines and supplying extra chances for instructors to incorporate engineering into lessons may promote the usage of constructivist behaviours. Availability, skill degree and usage may non, nevertheless, warrant purposeful usage of engineering nor constructivist rules. Rakes et Al. ( 1999 ) reported many instructors concentrated on the drill and pattern type of package, pretermiting basic computing machine accomplishments development, or dealt merely with presentation accomplishments and Internet resources. These research workers recommended concentrating on staff development and preparation in engineering usage and constructivist patterns that moved beyond literacy accomplishments to turn to more thoroughly application and curriculum integrating issues. When turn toing the function of the instructor in constructivist paradigms, there should be no misconstruing sing the importance of the instructor. Yet, many instructors feel uncomfortable with the deficiency of a chiseled content and the displacement of venue of control to the scholars ( Brush & A ; Saye, 2000 ; Duffy & A ; Cunningham, 1996 ) . Making suited contexts is non simply supplying scholars with resources and allowing them discover things for themselves, but forming resources in such a manner to breed cognitive disagreements in the heads of the scholars, animating them to larn how to larn through a procedure of coaction and defendable apprehensions ( Duffy & A ; Cunningham, 1996 ) . As a facilitator of acquisition, the instructor is non ineffective and on the out of boundss. On the contrary, the instructor is free to utilize a assortment of constructivist schemes, such as coaching, mold, and scaffolding, to help each scholar ( Collins, Brown & A ; Newman, 1990 ) . Scaffolding may include support from other persons and artefacts, every bit good as the cultural context and history that the scholars bring to the environment. Scaffolding, nevertheless, does non intend guiding and learning a scholar toward some chiseled end but back uping the growing of the scholar through cognitive and metacognitive activities ( Hannafin, Hill & A ; Land, 1997 ) . Therefore, the instructor assumes the function of a manager and ensures common apprehension of the positions of the scholar. In utilizing collaborative and concerted groups, the instructor must be careful in guaranting that they are non merely schemes for acquisition, but means to advance dialogical interchange and reflexi veness ( Duffy & A ; Cunningham, 1996 ) . As Morrison, Lowther, and DeMeulle ( 1999 ) competently suggest, â€Å" Technology and a constructivist attack need non be at odds with each other. If we change our position of computing machines from simply a agencies to present direction to one of a tool to work out jobs, so the reform motion can act upon the usage of engineering, and engineering can act upon the reform of instruction † ( p. 5 ) .DecisionConstructivist positions assert that acquisition is the active procedure of building instead than passively geting cognition, and direction is the procedure of back uping the cognition constructed by the scholars instead than the mere communicating of cognition ( Duffy & A ; Cunningham, 1996 ; Honebein, Duffy & A ; Fishman, 1993 ; Jonassen, 1999 ; ) . Truth is determined by the viability of the scholars ‘ apprehension in the existent universe, where viability is culturally determined. The constructivist model seeks to understand multiple positions, and challenges the s cholars ‘ thought ( Duffy & A ; Cunningham, 1996 ; Jonassen, Mayes & A ; McAleese, 1993 ) . It examines the societal beginnings of buildings, whereby it acknowledges larning as a procedure of socialization. Therefore, the survey of societal and cultural procedures and artefacts becomes a cardinal issue. Context is a dynamic whole including the person and sociohistorical facets ( Duffy & A ; Cunningham, 1996 ; Ezell & A ; O'Keefe, 1994 ) . Thinking is ever dialogic, linking heads, either straight or indirectly. The indirect or semiotic agencies are the marks and tools appropriated from the sociocultural context ( Duffy & A ; Cunningham, 1996 ) . Within this displacement in focal point from the objectivist to the constructivist context sphere, engineering can play an built-in portion in the acquisition environment ( Duffy & A ; Cunningham, 1996 ) . â€Å" The profusion of the engineering permits us to supply a richer and more exciting ( entertaining ) larning environmentaˆÂ ¦ our concern is the new apprehensions and new capablenesss that are possible through the usage of engineering † ( Duffy & A ; Cunningham, 1996, p. 187 ) . By incorporating engineering with constructivist methods, such as problem-based acquisition and project-based acquisition, scholars are more responsible for and active in the acquisition procedure ( Grant, 2002 ) . Additionally, mundane applications, such as word processors and spreadsheets, become powerful instruments for reliable acquisition. Constructivism offers flexibleness to instructors to individualise larning for each pupil while utilizing engineering tools to augment cognitive and metacognitive procedures.SubscribersAloka Nanjappa is presently a doctorial campaigner, Instructional Design and Technology, Department of Instructional Curriculum and Leadership, University of Memphis, Tennessee. She was Assistant Professor in a college of instruction, affiliated to the University of Bombay, India, learning Experimental Psychology, Educational Technology, and Methodology of learning Mathematicss. She has besides taught in the K-10 and undergraduate degree ( Zoology ) in India. Aloka was late awarded the Outstanding ID & A ; T Graduate Student Award by the University of Memphis, Tennessee. Her research involvements lie in teacher instruction with a focal point on engineering integrating in the schoolroom. Michael M. Grant is an Assistant Professor at the University of Memphis in the Instructional Design and Technology plan within the teacher instruction section. His most recent research has focused on suiting single differences and constructionism. He has worked with both preservice and inservice instructors on incorporating engineering.